Sign systems have been formed throughout human history. This was necessary not only so that the accumulated buildings could be passed on from generation to generation - according to many anthropologists, the science of signs originally arose as a means of communication between people.
What is semiotics?
Semiotics is a branch of knowledge that studies signs and sign systems. It arose at the intersection of several disciplines - psychology, biology, cybernetics, literature, and sociology. Semiotics includes three broad areas: syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. Syntactics studies the laws by which various types sign systems, methods of arrangement by which various elements of language are correlated. The subject of the study of semantics is meaning - the relationship between the sign itself and its meaning. Pragmatics studies the relationship between the user of language and the sign system itself. A sign is a specific material object (as well as an event or phenomenon) that is objectively used to replace another object, its properties or the relationship between objects.
Secondary modeling systems
In addition to the main classes of sign systems, there are also secondary modeling systems. Otherwise they are called “culture codes”. This category includes all types of cultural texts (except natural language), social activities, various models behavior, traditions, myths, religious beliefs. Cultural codes are formed in the same way as natural language. They function on the principle of agreement between members of society. The agreements, or codes, are known to every member of the group.
Development of the psyche and mastery of the sign system
Mastery of various types of sign systems is also a critical factor for the development of higher mental functions. Semiotic systems allow an individual to master public culture, historically established acceptable modes of behavior, and social experience. At the same time, the development of self-awareness occurs. Starting with elementary sensations, over time it is formed into a series of skills of self-perception, forming a certain opinion about oneself, and personal logic.
Encoding and decoding of information
In psychology, various examples of sign systems are most often studied in the context of their correlation with cognitive processes. Much attention is paid to neurophysiological features. But often speech as a way of transmitting information and exchanging knowledge is left aside by scientists. The process of encoding using iconic systems of visual images is still a mystery for researchers. The mental image is encoded into words in the speaker's brain. It is decoded in the listener's brain. The transformations that occur during this process remain unexplored.
Language sign systems: examples
Currently, linguistics is a dynamically developing branch of knowledge. The linguistic method is used in many sciences - for example, in ethnography and psychoanalysis. There are six types of sign systems in total. These are natural systems, recording systems, verbal systems. Let's look at each type in more detail.
Iconic systems
Examples of iconic sign systems are architecture, ballet, music, and non-verbal communication. They usually have a fairly strong emotional intensity, full of figurative components that are part of the sign. The study of various examples of sign systems shows: a scientist must not only use objective methods, but also independently model various examples of emotions and communicative situations.
Natural signs
Found in nature and in everyday life. Usually these are certain things or natural phenomena that point to other objects. Otherwise, they are also called sign signs. An example of natural sign systems can be signs about the weather and animal tracks. A classic illustration of this semiotic system is the sign of smoke, which indicates a fire.
Functional signs
This type of signs also refers to sign signs. However, unlike natural ones, the connection of a functional sign with the object that it designates is determined by a certain function, the activity of people. For example, home interior within the framework of semiotics, it is a text indicating the level of well-being of the owners of the house. A set of books on a bookshelf provides the viewer with information about the tastes of the library owner, his level of mental and moral development. Also, actions can often act as a functional sign. For example, cool teacher runs his finger along the list of students in the magazine. This action is also a functional sign - it means that soon someone will be called to the board.
Conventional signs
This is otherwise called conditional. The name "conventional" comes from the Latin conventio - "agreement". Conventional signs serve to designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding world “according to condition.” They themselves, as a rule, have very little in common with what they mean. Examples of sign systems related to conventional ones: traffic lights, indexes, cartographic signs, symbols (coats of arms, emblems).
Verbal (speech) sign systems
All human languages fall into this category. Each language has a historical basis (the so-called “semiotic basis”). The main feature of human languages is that each of them is a polystructural and multi-level system. This system is capable of almost unlimited development. The sign system of speech is a rich means for storing, processing and further transmitting information.
Sign systems
This semiotic category includes sign systems that arise on the basis of previous groups - verbal, dance, music. Sign systems of notation are secondary to these groups. They arose with the advent of writing. Without recording systems, human cognitive evolution would not have been possible.
Semiotic experiments in history
The ancient Greek scientist Plato divided all sounds into the categories of fast, huge, thin and round. M.V. Lomonosov was of the opinion that frequent repetition of the letter “A” in written or spoken speech contributes to the depiction of greatness, depth and height. The letters “E” and “U” help to depict affection, small items, tenderness. These views were set forth in his work A Brief Guide to Eloquence.
Researcher I.N. Gorelov conducted an interesting experiment. The subjects were asked to characterize the named “mamlyna” and “zhavaruga”. All of the participants in the experiment considered the “mummy” to be a kind, gentle and rounded creature. "Zhavaruga" was classified as wild, prickly and evil.
Volapuk language
There are a huge number of languages on the planet, and many dead languages - those that have fallen out of use. Despite this, there are still those who enthusiastically invent new ones. Examples of artificial sign systems are the well-known language Esperanto, its predecessor Volapuk, Universalglot, Lingua Catholica, Solresol and many others. One of the most complex is the ifkuil, created on the basis of ancient symbols. Artificial languages were created by individuals engaged in various fields. These were not always those who worked in professions of the sign system.
One of the strangest artificial languages is Volapuk. The idea for its invention first came to the mind of a German priest named Martin Schleyer. The worshiper claimed that the idea of creating an artificial language was suggested to him by the Lord himself in a dream. The purpose of creating Volapük was to simplify communication - Schleyer tried to create a simple and universal language. He took European languages as a basis - Latin, English and German. The priest tried to create words from just one syllable.
At first, the public showed little interest in this artificial language. However, a community was soon created and began to spread information about the new language. As a result, at the peak of its popularity, it numbered more than one hundred thousand speakers.
The Volapuk language seemed quite strange to many Europeans. The roots of words from various European dialects contained in it made it recognizable, but quite funny. Until today, the word “volapuk” means nonsense, gibberish. Despite this, it was popular right up until the time when the Nazis came to power in Germany.
Esperanto and other languages
However, when people talk about artificial languages, the first thing that comes to mind is a language called Esperanto. It was created in late XIX century and flourishes to this day - its carriers are hundreds of thousands of people around the world.
It is no coincidence that Esperanto has gained popularity - it is a very simple language that contains only 16 grammar rules. It is noteworthy that there is not a single exception to them. Esperanto words contain roots from various European languages, as well as Slavic ones. It is especially clear to Americans.
Over time, in order for the phrase “artificial languages” not to have a negative connotation, they began to be called “planned”. Only those languages that have a sufficient number of speakers receive direct status. If an artificial language is spoken only by its creator and a couple of friends, then it is called a “language project.”
By the way, Esperanto, despite its widespread use, was not the first planned language. The first was created by an abbess named Lingua Ignota (“unknown speech”). The abbess claimed that he was sent down to her from heaven. This language had its own written language and a dictionary in which thousands of concepts were deciphered. Artificial languages were also created in Eastern countries. For example, “bala-ibalan”. It was invented by Sheikh Muhyeddin using Persian, Arabic and Turkish as a basis.
Binary system
Most artificial languages were created on the basis of existing ones, so the binary sign system, which uses numbers, is not a means of communication. In it, as you know, information is recorded using two numbers - 0 and 1. Once upon a time there were computers with a more complex system - ternary. But binary is the most convenient for digital technology. In the binary sign system, 1 and 0 indicate the presence or absence of a signal.
Solresol: an unusual idea from a musician
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, musician François Sudre from France shared with society unusual idea: He invented an artificial language called Solresol. His words, of which there were more than two and a half thousand, were recorded using notes. It’s hard to believe, but the idea, which at first was just a musical intellectual game, has become popular. The Solresol language gained popularity among contemporaries, because notes are international symbols.
Signs, even entire symbols, occupy a special place in the MSS.
Sign represents a material-ideal essence, with the help of which something new is learned that lies beyond its external form.
Sign system is considered as a set of conventional signs and rules for their interrelation in a certain sphere of human activity. The science that deals with sign properties and sign systems is semiotics, founded by Charles Saenders Pierce (1839-1914). According to the scientist, “a sign is some A, denoting some fact or object B, for some interpreting thought C.”
According to American psychologists, there are about 700,000 signs. For comparison, a complete English dictionary has no more than 600,000 words.
Man lives in two worlds - the world of things and the world of signs, and the entire world of signs is the first target for manipulation (Fig. 19.1). Preparation for manipulation consists in creating new ideas, desires, goals, and not just destroying certain ideas and ideas. The main task is to cause confusion in thoughts, make them illogical, unconnected,
human whitefish to question the stable truths of life. And this makes a person defenseless against manipulation.
Sign relationships include:
o a thing that acts as a sign;
o indications of something else;
o interpretation (interpretation).
According to C.S. Peirce, there are such types of signs:
♦ A like B: cult signs (geographical maps, diagrams, drawings)
♦ A similar (adjacent) to B: indices (footprint, glass with a bullet hole, finger pointing at something, traffic signs);
♦ A conditionally like B: symbols(words, sentences, mathematical symbols).
The following are distinguished: types of sign systems:
1.1. Primary - formed by objects, phenomena, properties of the surrounding reality.
1.2. Secondary - reflection of external reality with the help of consciousness.
2. Artificial / natural.
3.1. Deterministic - elements interact in a strictly defined and unambiguous way.
3.2. Probabilistic - non-rigid order of elements.
4.1. One-dimensional - composed of homogeneous elements.
4.2. Multidimensional - composed of heterogeneous elements.
5.1. Dynamic - moving.
5.2. Static - motionless.
There are five main variants of sign systems:
Level 0: Structural - a sign system, initially inherent in any matter. Transmits information about its properties through the structure of an object. Unconditional.
1st level: Sensory - sign system, initially inherent in “living” matter. Tactile, chemical, radiation, gravitational perception. An unambiguous assessment system (water temperature above 20 ° C is acceptable, a visa of 45 ° C is life-threatening), adequate perception of stimuli, based on unconditioned reflexes (developed starting from single-celled animals).
Level 2: facial - sign system, initially characteristic of intra-group communication, allows adequate transmission of information. It includes: facial expressions, gestures, various types of specialized signaling (smell, electrical, etc.) adopted within this group. Pretty clear.
3rd level: Verbal - a sign system that operates with abstract concepts (words, numbers that indicate an information object, but do not depict it). It is excessive, built on a system of pointers, and each pointer is built structurally (languages, mathematics).
4th level: Ethical - a sign system that is derivative in relation to the first four sign systems. Allows you to transmit information about the “emotional”, “figurative” coloring of the event. Its presence (development) is characterized as a manifestation of higher nervous activity. This sign system operates with figurative concepts - models of real objects. Each model is ambiguous, close to the real object with specified accuracy, carries information about the structure of the object, about the semantics of its relationship with the information environment. An information carrier for her is more low levels(which is typical for all levels of sign systems - all of them can use other levels).
The hierarchy of sign systems is based on two principles of division: the type of sign system and its basic sign. It has the form shown in Figure 19.2.
Let's consider the main components of sign systems.
1. Silence (silence technique).
Silence is also information. Reflections, consciousness and subconsciousness of a person are influenced by the alternation of sound and silence with a certain rhythm and intensity (as in F. Nietzsche, “great events happen in silence”). The technique of silence is “quiet”, more or less subconscious communication among initiates using reticence.
2. The language of words.
Language is a secondary natural probabilistic multidimensional dynamic sign system.
“We are slaves of words,” said K. Marx, and then F. Nietzsche literally repeated this. This conclusion has been proven by many studies as a theorem.
The primary function of the word at the dawn of humanity was suggestion, subordination not through reason, but through feelings (songs, fairy tales). This hypothesis, expressed by Boris Fedorovich Porshnev (1905-1972), is finding more and more confirmation. For example, a person has grief, life is a mess, she seeks advice from other people who do not know her problems at all, but can console her with words of suggestion: “don’t be sad,” “pull yourself together,” “everything will work out,” etc. These words have a healing effect. It's the words, not the content. Suggestibility through words plus a deep property of the psyche that arose much earlier than the ability to think analytically. This can also be traced in the process of child development, when the main line of the child’s behavior is: “Mom didn’t tell me to.”
“Language is the house of being. Man lives in the house of language...” wrote the German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) in “Letter on Humanism.” In modern times, in the new society of the West, natural language began to be replaced by an artificial, specially created one. Words have become rational, lost their age-old roots, and turned into an impersonal, soulless instrument. How:
Stock Dealer - "Broker"
Hitman - "Killer Chief -" Leader
Frequently used word humanism can mean a share, a specific idea of a person, with the suppression and even destruction of all those who do not fit into this theory - the Indians were destroyed on the ideas of the Enlightenment; another striking example is the slave trade: from 1701-1810. 6,200,000 Africans were sold to America, and 10 times more died in the holds of the ships. But in 1811-1870. All enlightened Europe cursed Russia for violating human rights - serfdom, and in parallel, “humane” Europeans brought another 1,900,000 Africans to America and sold them, although Russian sailors managed to catch and hang some slave traders for this.
Another example of the use of the language of words is the dystopian novel “1984” by George Orwell - a fantastic description of a totalitarian regime, the main means of suppression in which was “newspeak” - a specially invented language that changes the content of familiar words. As history shows, 1985 It was the year of the introduction of “newspeak” for the USSR.
From this perspective, it is worth dwelling on the issue of the properties of a linguistic sign. Thus, it has a relatively conditional connection with real things and with the properties of these things. Sound side sign relatively conditionally related with content. Capable of entering into linear relationships as part of a complex sign, as well as into linear, spatial and temporal relationships as part of a speech chain. Connected with other signs by relations of simultaneity in the mind of a native speaker. It has persistence due to tradition and is necessary for society. Replaceable over time due to changing conditions of its use. The sound and content side of their change is relative - within the laws of the language system - independent of each other. Is one sign of a language necessarily connected with other signs? The sign system of language is fused with the system of consciousness and through it is connected and correlated with the system social life people.
The functions of linguistic signs are: distinctive, constructive and classifying. In relation to objects and elements of consciousness: nominative (name of an object), deactive (indications of an object), expressive (expression of a state of consciousness), significative (designation of a concept), modeling (creation of a sign analogue of a situation), pragmatic (influence on a person).
3. Language of numbers.
The number has many meanings and is rooted in many cultures around the world. A number, like a word, is initially associated with a thing. The Pythagoreans believed that things “imitate numbers.” Nicholas of Cusa said: “Where the speech of mathematics fails, the human spirit will no longer be able to understand and know anything.” The world can only be understood through numbers. The persuasive power of numbers is enormous!
The language of numbers seems as dispassionate as possible, so it cannot lie. The power of persuasion of numbers is great, it gives freedom to those who own numbers, and makes those who “consume” them very dependent. This state of affairs means replacing qualities (values) with their quantitative surrogate (price), which will remove the problem of choice and take it up with the problem of counting, which is the meaning of the totalitarian power of technocracy.
In addition, the number tends to get stuck in the brain, especially if it is associated with a mathematical formula or equation (common sense is powerless in this case).
4. Pheromones - “a diet of smells.”
The idea of using smells as a means of exchanging information was “borrowed” from insects (smell as the main information channel about its condition).
The sign system of smells, the meaning of which is often hidden outside consciousness, causes a significant influence on behavior (for example, perfumes containing information about the subtlest human relationships).
Words about smells affect a special mental sphere - the imagination, and under the influence of words a person seems to feel this or that smell. Signal of smells - “the smell of blood”, “the smell of fried food” - a potentially dangerous, uncovered section of the front of our defense against the MSS
5. Visual language.
More than 100 years ago, Le Bon defined: “The crowd thinks in images, and the image evoked in its imagination, in turn, evokes others that have no logical connection with the first... The crowd, capable of thinking only in images, is receptive only to images. Only images can captivate her or instill horror in her and become the drivers of her actions."
The nature of manipulation consists in the presence of a double impact - along with the message that openly refers, the manipulator sends a “coded” signal to the addressee, hoping that this signal will awaken in the recipient’s mind those images that the manipulator needs. This hidden influence relies on the “tacit knowledge” possessed by the recipient, his ability to create images in his mind that influence his feelings, thoughts and behavior.
The art of manipulation is to set the imagination process in the right direction, but in such a way that the person does not notice the hidden influence.
A special place is occupied by visual images and eidosphere perception, which certify the power technologies of our millennium. In combination with text and numbers, visual images give a multiple cooperative effect, because two are combined different types perceptions that resonate and mutually “shatter” each other (semantic, “belief”, and aesthetic, “capture”). An example of this is also the theater (in one message combined various types signs - text, sound, voices, light, plastic movements - and this maintains a person’s interest and attention for a long time).
6. Democracy of noise.
Technology, which is used to make it impossible for the elite (intelligentsia) to create their own groups among the masses of the governed - for this purpose it is completely left without silence. After all, the elite greatly values silence and, of course, has the economic opportunity to organize their own lives outside the “democracy of noise.” Such a sound (and noise) design of the surrounding space is created that the average person practically does not have sufficient periods of silence to concentrate and think through a coherent opinion. This is an important condition for her defenselessness against manipulation of consciousness.
7. Acousphere (world of sound forms).
The acoustic sphere is the world of sound forms. It affects not the mind, but the feelings. The perception of a word very much depends on the voice in which it is pronounced (commanding, affectionate, capricious): “The tongue is the flowering of the lips.”
M. Heidegger emphasized: “In order for being to reveal itself in its mysterious appearance, the one who listens must freely surrender himself to the power of its audible image.”
With the help of these signs, you can destroy psychological defenses, turn off common sense and prepare a person’s consciousness for manipulation.
Sign systems have been formed throughout human history. This was necessary not only so that the accumulated buildings could be passed on from generation to generation - according to many anthropologists, the science of signs originally arose as a means of communication between people.
What is semiotics?
Semiotics is a branch of knowledge that studies signs and sign systems. It arose at the intersection of several disciplines - psychology, biology, cybernetics, literature, and sociology. Semiotics includes three broad areas of knowledge. These are syntactics, semantics, pragmatics. Syntactics studies the laws by which various types of sign systems are structured, the methods of arrangement by which various elements of language are correlated. The subject of the study of semantics is meaning - the relationship between the sign itself and its meaning. Pragmatics studies the relationship between the user of language and the sign system itself. A sign is a certain material object (as well as an event or phenomenon) that is objectively used to replace another object, its properties or the relationship between objects.
Secondary modeling systems
In addition to the main classes of sign systems, there are also secondary modeling systems. Otherwise they are called “culture codes”. This category includes all types of cultural texts (excluding natural language), social activities, various patterns of behavior, traditions, myths, and religious beliefs. Cultural codes are formed in the same way as natural language. They function on the principle of agreement between members of society. The agreements, or codes, are known to every member of the group.
Development of the psyche and mastery of the sign system
Mastery of various types of sign systems is also a critical factor for the development of higher mental functions. Semiotic systems allow an individual to master public culture, historically established acceptable modes of behavior, and social experience. At the same time, the development of self-awareness occurs. Starting with elementary sensations, over time it is formed into a series of skills of self-perception, forming a certain opinion about oneself, and personal logic.
Encoding and decoding of information
In psychology, various examples of sign systems are most often studied in the context of their correlation with cognitive processes. Much attention is paid to neurophysiological features. But often speech as a way of transmitting information and exchanging knowledge is left aside by scientists. The process of encoding using iconic systems of visual images is still a mystery for researchers. The mental image is encoded into words in the speaker's brain. It is decoded in the listener's brain. The transformations that occur during this process remain unexplored.
Language sign systems: examples
Currently, linguistics is a dynamically developing branch of knowledge. The linguistic method is used in many sciences - for example, in ethnography and psychoanalysis. There are six types of sign systems in total. These are natural systems, iconic, conventional, recording systems, verbal systems. Let's look at each type in more detail.
Iconic systems
Examples of iconic sign systems are architecture, ballet, music, and non-verbal communication. They usually have a fairly strong emotional intensity, full of figurative components that are part of the sign. The study of various examples of sign systems shows: a scientist must not only use objective methods, but also independently model various examples of emotions and communicative situations.
Natural signs
These signs are found in nature and in everyday life. Usually these are certain things or natural phenomena that point to other objects. Otherwise, they are also called sign signs. An example of natural sign systems can be signs about the weather and animal tracks. A classic illustration of this semiotic system is the sign of smoke, which indicates a fire.
Functional signs
This type of signs also refers to sign signs. However, unlike natural ones, the connection of a functional sign with the object that it designates is determined by a certain function, the activity of people. For example, a home interior, within the framework of semiotics, is a text indicating the level of well-being of the owners of the house. A set of books on a bookshelf provides the viewer with information about the tastes of the library owner, his level of mental and moral development. Also, actions can often act as a functional sign. For example, a classroom teacher runs his finger along a list of students in a magazine. This action is also a functional sign - it means that soon someone will be called to the board.
Conventional signs
This example of a sign system is otherwise called conventional. The name “conventional” comes from the Latin conventio – “agreement”. Conventional signs serve to designate objects and phenomena of the surrounding world “according to condition.” They themselves, as a rule, have very little in common with what they mean. Examples of sign systems related to conventional ones: traffic lights, indexes, cartographic signs, symbols (coats of arms, emblems).
Verbal (speech) sign systems
All human languages fall into this category. Each language has a historical basis (the so-called “semiotic basis”). The main feature of human languages is that each of them is a polystructural and multi-level system. This system is capable of almost unlimited development. The sign system of speech is a rich means for storing, processing and further transmitting information. 
Sign systems
This semiotic category includes sign systems that arise on the basis of previous groups - verbal, dance, music. Sign systems of notation are secondary to these groups. They arose with the advent of writing. Without recording systems, human cognitive evolution would not have been possible.
Semiotic experiments in history
The ancient Greek scientist Plato divided all sounds into the categories of fast, huge, thin and round. M.V. Lomonosov was of the opinion that frequent repetition of the letter “A” in written or spoken speech contributes to the depiction of greatness, depth and height. The letters “E” and “Y” help to depict affection, small objects, and tenderness. These views were set forth in his work A Brief Guide to Eloquence.
Researcher I.N. Gorelov conducted an interesting experiment. The subjects were asked to characterize fantastic animals called “mamlyna” and “zhavaruga”. All of the participants in the experiment considered the “mummy” to be a kind, gentle and rounded creature. "Zhavaruga" was classified as wild, prickly and evil. 
Volapuk language
There are a huge number of languages on the planet, and many dead languages – those that have fallen out of use. Despite this, there are still those who enthusiastically invent new ones. Examples of artificial sign systems are the well-known language Esperanto, its predecessor Volapuk, Universalglot, Lingua Catholica, Solresol and many others. One of the most complex is the ifkuil, created on the basis of ancient symbols. Artificial languages were created by individuals engaged in various fields. These were not always those who worked in professions of the sign system.
One of the strangest artificial languages is Volapuk. The idea for its invention first came to the mind of a German priest named Martin Schleyer. The worshiper claimed that the idea of creating an artificial language was suggested to him by the Lord himself in a dream. The purpose of creating Volapük was to simplify communication - Schleyer tried to create a simple and universal language. He took European languages as a basis - Latin, English and German. The priest tried to create words from just one syllable.
At first, the public showed little interest in this artificial language. However, a community was soon created and began to spread information about the new language. As a result, at the peak of its popularity, it numbered more than one hundred thousand speakers.
The Volapuk language seemed quite strange to many Europeans. The roots of words from various European dialects contained in it made it recognizable, but quite funny. Until today, the word “volapuk” means nonsense, gibberish. Despite this, Volapük was popular until the time when the Nazis came to power in Germany.
Esperanto and other languages
However, when people talk about artificial languages, the first thing that comes to mind is a language called Esperanto. It was created at the end of the 19th century and has flourished to this day - hundreds of thousands of people all over the world are its bearers.
It is no coincidence that Esperanto has gained popularity - it is a very simple language that contains only 16 grammar rules. It is noteworthy that there is not a single exception to them. Esperanto words contain roots from various European languages, as well as Slavic ones. It is especially clear to Americans.
Over time, in order for the phrase “artificial languages” not to have a negative connotation, they began to be called “planned”. Only those languages that have a sufficient number of speakers receive direct status. If an artificial language is spoken only by its creator and a couple of friends, then it is called a “language project.”
By the way, Esperanto, despite its widespread use, was not the first planned language. The first was created by an abbess named Hildegard of Bingen. It was called Lingua Ignota (“unknown speech”). The abbess claimed that he was sent down to her from heaven. This language had its own written language and a dictionary in which thousands of concepts were deciphered. Artificial languages were also created in Eastern countries. For example, “bala-ibalan”. It was invented by Sheikh Muhyeddin using Persian, Arabic and Turkish as a basis. 
Binary system
Most artificial languages were created on the basis of existing ones, so the binary sign system, which uses numbers, is not a means of communication. In it, as you know, information is recorded using two numbers - 0 and 1. Once upon a time there were computers with a more complex system - ternary. But binary is the most convenient for digital technology. In the binary sign system, 1 and 0 indicate the presence or absence of a signal. 
Solresol: an unusual idea from a musician
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, musician Francois Sudre from France shared an unusual idea with society: he invented an artificial language called solresol. His words, of which there were more than two and a half thousand, were recorded using notes. It’s hard to believe, but the idea, which at first was just a musical intellectual game, has become popular. The Solresol language gained popularity among contemporaries, because notes are international symbols.
ñ Sign- a material-ideal essence, through which something new is learned that lies beyond its external form.
ñ Sign system- a set of signs that form a unity based on internal relationships between them and are used in a certain field of human activity.
ñ Semiotics- the science of sign properties and sign systems. Founder - Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914).
All systems of means used by humans to exchange information are symbolic, or semiotic, i.e. systems of signs and rules for their use. The science that studies sign systems is called semiotics, or semiology(from ancient Greek sema - sign). This interdisciplinary science arose at the intersection of linguistics, information theory, psychology, biology, literature, and sociology. In general semiotics there are three sections:
ñ syntactics - the study of the objective laws of the structure of sign systems, as well as the relationship between the elements of language, the rules of their formation and combination;
ñ semantics - the study of meanings, i.e. relations between signs and meanings, rules of designation and understanding;
ñ pragmatics - the study of the relationship of subjects using a sign system to this system, in other words, the relationship between language and the user and the rules of language use.
Semiotics of culture is the symbolic means of culture, as well as the consideration of all cultural phenomena as texts. In this case, it is assumed that a necessary component of any culture is information, which is always stored and transmitted using signs, which together make up the text. At the same time, “text” refers not only to written messages, but to any artifact considered as a carrier of information. Language is also understood in in a broad sense- not only as a natural language (primary modeling systems), but also as a secondary modeling system. Cultural languages are called modeling systems, since they are the means by which a person cognizes, explains and tries to change the world around him.
Sign relationships:
ñ a thing acting as a sign;
ñ an indication of something else;
ñ interpretation (interpretation).
ABOUT C.S. Pierce:“A sign is some A signifying some fact or object B for some interpreting thought C.”
Types of signs(according to Charles Pierce):
ñ A is similar to B: iconic signs(geographical maps, diagrams, drawings);
ñ A is connected (adjacent) to B: indices(footprint, glass with a bullet hole, pointing a finger at something, street signs, in language: pronouns - this, that, particles - Here, adverbs - Here);
ñ A is conditionally related to B: symbols(words, sentences, mathematical symbols).
Classification of signs in semiotics: 2 types
Iconic signs - signs-images, appearance which reflect the appearance of the things they designate. As a rule, they are created artificially, although occasionally natural objects can be used if they are similar to the object they want to designate. Thus, in music thunder, sea waves, etc. are imitated; in this case, the signs are similar in material to the designated objects. Artistic images, created by writers, artists or sculptors, very accurately describe people, animals or events, although they are more or less conventional.
Conventional (conventional) signs- artificially created signs to which people have agreed to attribute a certain meaning. They may be completely different from the object they represent (although this is not excluded), for example, a school bell. a red cross on an Yomoshi ambulance, a zebra crossing at a pedestrian crossing, etc. There are three main types of conventional signs - signals, indexes and symbols.
Signals- notice or warning signs, such as traffic light colors.
Indexes - symbols objects or situations that have a compact appearance and are used to highlight these objects and situations from others. Sometimes (but not necessarily) they try to select them so that their appearance suggests what they mean, for example, instrument readings, symbols in diagrams, graphs, etc.
Symbols - signs that not only point to a certain object, but also carry additional meaning. If the meanings of any other signs relate either to things and objects of real physical world, or to the phenomena of mental and spiritual life (concepts, ideas, feelings, etc.), then the meanings of the symbols indicate the significance, value of these phenomena both for an individual person (individual symbols), and for small and large groups people, peoples, states, humanity as a whole. Examples of symbols are state emblems, flags, anthems - symbolic signs of the dignity of states.
Symbols have not only a conventional, but also an iconic character. The signifying side of a symbol is always somehow connected with what it means, has some similarity with it, sometimes very indirect, associative. For example, scales can be a symbol of justice, as they contain the idea of balance. Depending on the nature of the value meaning, different types of symbols are distinguished: historical (Borodinsky field as a symbol of the glory of Russian weapons), religious (cross, icons), mythological (Gaia - Earth, Kronos - time, etc.), ideological and propaganda (programs , constitutions, slogans), moral ( white- purity), artistic (works of art).
"It was highlighted five types of sign systems:
Natural sign systems;
- figurative sign systems;
- linguistic sign systems;
- recording systems;
- code systems.
It is in this sequence, in our opinion, that these coding systems real life appear in the ontogenetic development of humanity and in the phylogenesis of the individual. The same sequence of systems is preserved in the organization of the learning process, although in a somewhat blurred form. The appearance of systems in this order is explained by several factors, the most important of which is the type of basic sign of a particular system.
All other features of sign systems (the main characteristics of systems will be mentioned below) are based on the degree of abstraction of the basic sign and its “distance” from the signified.
Of the five types of systems, four are primary and are intended to directly encode reality; recording systems are a secondary code designed to encode sign systems. Recording systems again have their own basic signs, which differ from the signs of the encoded system, and their own operating rules. The code systems that follow them cannot exist without the corresponding symbolism, which at the same time serves to record them. In this case, primary and secondary systems are not distinguished. Each type of sign systems develops in a wide range of specific sign codes, in which the same basic sign is modified and receives different semiotic content. From system to system of the same type one can trace the increasing “detachment” of the sign from the signified and, in addition, the different semiotic charge of the sign. The appearance of certain specific systems among their various modifications depends on the latter circumstance. This development can be shown in the history of systems of a certain type (history of sciences, arts, etc.) […]
An analysis of the same plan can be carried out in the phylogenetic aspect. All this multifaceted analysis leads us to the conclusion that sign systems realized the development potential inherent in humans. Man had to understand and use environment and your own intellectual capabilities. He did this with the help of sign systems. The hierarchy of sign systems reflects the cultural development of mankind: without mastering the previous level it was impossible to climb to the next one, and having climbed to the next level, a person could use the previous one in a new way... I tried to show that at certain points in the development of the previous type of system, the beginnings of a new one were already emerging; from that moment on, the parallel development of both the old and emerging new systems began. […]
Each type of system has its own basic sign:
Natural (natural) systems correspond to a sign in the form of a material real object or phenomenon;
- figurative systems correspond to an image;
- language systems - the word;
- writing systems - a letter or other similar symbol;
- for code systems - a symbol.
I also tried to differentiate terms that would mean how each type of sign reflects reality:
Natural sign - indicates;
- image - reflects;
- word - describes;
- letter - fixes;
- symbol - encodes.
The signs constructed in this hierarchy clearly differ from each other in the degree of their proximity to the signified and, consequently, in the degree of their abstraction. I derived a pattern that constantly helped in the specific analysis of systems: the more “separated”, “detached” a sign is from the signified, the more “tied” it is to the system and depends on it. In more abstract signs there is a natural tendency towards greater formalization of the systems of these signs and vice versa. Formalization is expressed in many characteristics of systems, such as: the presence in them of metalanguages, recording systems, the relationship between different logics in them, etc.
The dual affiliation of a semiotic sign - its connection with the signified and its belonging to a certain sign system and dependence on it - from our point of view, the most important characteristic of the sign.
The pattern formulated above reflects the dependence between man, code and extra-code reality. There is, however, another side to the issue. In our scheme (man - reality - human tools) there are not two, but three elements, each coding of reality is carried out through our brain. What happens in the brain during our direct encounter with reality is still unknown to us. We only know how our perceptions spill out through code systems. There is no doubt that the forms of reflection of reality in various signs have a reverse effect on the functioning of the brain, and our thinking itself can be studied from them. In the very same signs of the same type, different mental potentials are revealed, or, as I called it, different quantum charges.
This is for now nothing more than a statement of fact, since I cannot draw practical applications from this conclusion, as I do from the first sign pattern. But this conclusion goes in line with the brilliant hypothesis Condillac And de Saussure, who long ago stated that our thinking seems to be syncretic, while language (and I add other sign systems) is discrete.
As a species, we simply have no other physiological capabilities other than those that provide discrete signals. However, these signals have different “mental” charges. When I built a continuum for the signs of figurative systems, this was clearly felt. Natural objects as images - “icons” - conventional images (of varying degrees of conventionality) affect us differently. Apparently, only on this type of system can we test our hypothesis, because figurative systems strongly influence not only the rational, but also the emotional sphere. From sign to sign in these systems its “emotional charge” increases and the semiotic potential changes. Obviously, this problem requires serious improvement and experimental confirmation.”
Abram Solomonik, Philosophy of sign systems and language, Minsk, “MET”, 2002, p. 131-133.