Political science. lectures for university students. Political science as a science and academic discipline. Object and subject of political science Political science as a science of an academic discipline

Introduction

1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences

3. Research methods used in political science

Literature

Introduction

Politics can be found at the basis of all processes occurring in society, although not everything in human relations can be reduced to politics. In modern conditions there is no person who could say that he is outside the radius of action of politics. Even if a person considers himself apolitical, he is forced to recognize and at the same time respect the decisions of political authorities. Knowledge of politics meets the interests of every person who strives to understand his place and role in society, to better satisfy his needs in community with other people, and to influence the choice of goals and means of their implementation in the state.

People understand politics in two main ways: through ordinary views, gained from everyday practical experience, and through scientific knowledge, which is the result of research. Everyday, unsystematized ideas about politics have existed for many millennia. In one form or another they are inherent in every person. Reflecting primarily the practical side of political phenomena, everyday knowledge can be true or false. In general, they do not reflect reality deeply and comprehensively and therefore cannot serve as a reliable guide for a person in the world of politics. Political science and its study are designed to provide all this.

1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences

The concept of "political science" comes from two Greek words - politike (state affairs) and logos (teaching). Political science as an independent branch of knowledge emerged at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, when thinkers began to explain political processes using scientific rather than religious and mythological arguments. The foundations of scientific political theory were laid by N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, S.-L. Montesquieu and others. Political science as an independent scientific discipline began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In 1857, F. Leiber began teaching a course in political science at Columbia College; in 1880, the first school of political science was created in the same college, which marked the beginning of the active formation of a system of political science educational and scientific institutions in the United States. And in 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, and in the same year a political journal began to be published. In France, the teaching of “political and moral sciences” began during the Great French Revolution. In Great Britain, the London School of Economics and Political Sciences has been operating since 1885, where law enforcement officials are trained state power and managers different levels. In 1896, the Italian political scientist and sociologist G. Mosca published the book “Elements of Political Science,” which gives reason to talk about the expansion of political science in Europe since the end of the 19th century. The process of establishing political science as an independent science and academic discipline was completed in 1948. In this year, under the auspices of UNESCO, the International Association political science. At the International Congress she held (Paris, 1948) on political science, the content of this science was determined and it was recommended to include a course in political science for study in the higher education system as a compulsory discipline. It was decided that the main components of political science are: 1) political theory; 2) political institutions; 3) parties, groups and public opinion; 4) international relations. In our country, political science was considered for a long time as a bourgeois theory, a pseudoscience, and therefore was in its infancy. Certain political science problems were considered within the framework of historical materialism, scientific communism, the history of the CPSU, and others. social sciences. Moreover, their study was dogmatic and one-sided. Political science as a new academic course begins to be taught in all higher education institutions educational institutions Ukraine only after the collapse of the USSR. As an independent science, political science has its own object and specific subject of knowledge.

Object Political science is the sphere of political relations in society.

The sphere of political relations is much wider than what could be called purely political. It includes the processes of functioning and development of power, inclusion of the masses in politics, economic, social and spiritual interests of society. The political sphere represents the interaction in the political process of large and small social groups, associations of citizens, individuals. The political sphere includes socio-political institutions and organizations through which interaction takes place between individual political subjects.

Subject political science is the patterns of formation and development of political power, forms and methods of its functioning and use in a state-organizational society. The uniqueness of political science lies in the fact that it considers all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. Without power there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as the means of its implementation. The category “political power” is universal and covers all political phenomena. For example, the problems of reform of the political system, which are very hotly discussed in our state. From the point of view of legal science, they represent a dispute about the content of legal norms; from the point of view of political science, they are a theoretical reflection of the struggle of various social forces for the possession of economic and political power in society. Thus, political science is a system of knowledge about politics, political power, political relations and processes, and the organization of the political life of society. Political science arose and is developing in interaction with many sciences that study individual aspects of politics as a social phenomenon. (see diagram 1) History and geography, law and sociology, philosophy and economics, psychology and cybernetics and a number of other sciences have their own approaches to the study of various aspects of politics. Each of them has as its subject the study of one or another aspect of the sphere of political relations, ranging from methodological to specific applied issues. History studies real socio-political processes and different points of view on these processes. Thus, it allows one to find out and explain the reasons for current political processes. Philosophy creates a general picture of the world, clarifies the place of man and his activities in this world, gives general concepts about the principles and conditions of knowledge, the development of theoretical concepts in general, political ones in particular. Economic theory considers economic processes as the basis of the political sphere, which makes it possible to understand the nature of political relations. The law outlines the general framework for the activities of all government agencies, as well as other organizations, citizens and their associations, i.e. framework for the formation of phenomena central to politics. Sociology provides political science with information about the functioning of society as a system, about the interaction of different social groups in the aspect of political relations. Particularly valuable for political science are the methodological developments of sociology regarding the conduct of empirical research (questionnaires, content analysis, expert surveys, etc.). Political science is closely related to psychology. Analyzing human activity in the political sphere, a political scientist uses concepts developed by psychological science: “needs”, “interests”, “ideals”, etc. In its research, political science also relies on data from political geography and political anthropology, and uses materials from political global studies. In the last decade, a number of special political science disciplines have appeared: political modeling, political imageology, political marketing, etc. Sciences such as cybernetics, logic, statistics, systems theory give political science a form, quantitative measurements, structures for presenting scientific messages from the point of view of abstract interpretations of political phenomena and processes.

Scheme 1 Interrelation of political science with other sciences

Like any scientific discipline that has a subject of research, political science has its own system categories , i.e. . key concepts with the help of which the subject of science is revealed.

The specificity of the political science category apparatus is that, being formed later than the apparatus of other social sciences, it borrowed many categories from the historical, philosophical, legal, and sociological vocabulary. Political science has drawn many terms from the field of natural sciences: cybernetics, biology, theoretical mathematics, etc. The system of political science categories is in development, it is constantly enriched both at the international and domestic levels. Nevertheless, some elementary concepts have already become established and have entered into widespread practice. They will be revealed and explained in subsequent lectures. The most important categories of political science include: politics, political power, the political system of society, political regime, civil society, political parties, political culture, political elite, political leadership, etc. Political science concepts and assessments, the impact of political science on the life of modern society are becoming more and more widespread and significant. This indicates the presence of diverse connections between political science and society, and the fulfillment of a number of important functions by it. Let's highlight the most obvious ones (see diagram 2) Theoretical-cognitive the function is associated with the identification, study, understanding of various trends, difficulties, contradictions of political processes, with the assessment of past political events;

Methodological the function of political science assumes that understanding the general laws of the political life of society will help other social sciences in solving their specific problems;

Functions of political science:

Theoretical-cognitive

Methodological

Analytical

Regulatory

Prognostic

Analytical the function of political science, like other social sciences, is aimed at understanding the essence of political processes, phenomena, and their comprehensive assessment;

Regulatory The function is that political science contributes to the development of correct guidelines in turbulent political flows, ensures the influence of people and organizations on the political process, their participation in political events.

The essence prognostic function is that knowledge of global trends in political development and their correlation with existing interest groups in society allows one to determine in advance the effectiveness of proposed political decisions. The presence of a preliminary examination helps to insure society from negative consequences and ineffective actions.

Applied political science. Conventionally, political science can be divided into theoretical and applied. Both components are inextricably linked, complement and enrich each other.

Applied political science is a branch of political science that studies specific political situations in order to obtain certain information for interested individuals and organizations, develop political forecasts for them, practical advice and recommendations to improve the efficiency of their activities.

The specificity of applied political science is clearly manifested in its goals and final product. Theoretical political science aims to obtain new general abstract knowledge, quite universal or knowledge that characterizes entire types of phenomena. Applied political science seeks to develop mainly short-term forecasts of the unfolding of events and to give specific recommendations to certain participants in the political process. Applied political science research is usually carried out by professional analysts, experts, image makers (specialists in creating a positive image of a politician among citizens, especially voters), advisers to political figures and other persons related to real politics. Applied research is usually carried out on request government agencies, parties, other organizations, candidates for elected positions, etc. Such studies are widely used in the preparation of government decisions, as well as during election campaigns. Applied political science develops technologies for managing election campaigns, the processes of creating political parties and associations, and using the capabilities of the media in achieving certain political goals.

3. Research methods used in political science

Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how this process is carried out, what methods, techniques, and means are used.

Research methods are techniques and ways of achieving certain results in practical and cognitive activities.

Depending on the specific purpose of the study, political science chooses various techniques and methods of analysis, of which there are quite a few. Conventionally, the methods used in the study of political phenomena and processes can be divided into general theoretical and specific empirical (see Diagram 3). In real research, all methods are intertwined and complement each other. The group of general theoretical methods includes institutional, historical, systemic, comparative, psychological, behaviorist, etc.

Institutional the method is focused on studying the interaction of political institutions: the state, its bodies, political parties and others public organizations. The analysis is based on established and socially rooted political forms and formal decision rules. Historical method - based on the study of political phenomena in their development. The advantage of the historical method lies, first of all, in the fact that it makes it possible to study political processes in the context of the historical situation in which they arise and develop. This method also makes it possible to analyze phenomena that occur repeatedly in history (for example, wars and revolutions). Using the historical method, researchers have the opportunity to generalize modern historical experience in the development of political systems. Analysis of various stages in the movement of political processes allows us to identify patterns in their development. The importance of using the historical method in political analysis is largely determined by the needs of political practice. Its timely and correct application allows one to avoid manifestations of voluntarism and subjectivism in politics.

Comparative method. In order to understand the true essence of the political world, it is necessary to study the various forms of its manifestation in different countries and regions, socio-economic, socio-historical situations, among different nations and peoples, etc. In this context, as objects comparative analysis Not only the political system in its entirety, its forms, types and varieties, but also its specific components can act. And these are government structures, legislative bodies, parties and party systems, electoral systems, mechanisms of political socialization, etc. Modern comparative political research covers dozens or even hundreds of compared objects, carried out using both qualitative approaches and the latest mathematical and cybernetic means of collecting and processing information. There are several types of comparative research: cross-national comparison is focused on comparing states with each other; comparatively oriented description of individual cases; binary analysis based on comparison of two (most often similar) countries; cross-cultural and cross-institutional comparisons aimed, respectively, at comparing national cultures and institutions.

System the method focuses on the integrity of policy and the nature of its relationship with the external environment. The system method is most widely used in the study of complex developing objects - multi-level, usually self-organizing. These, in particular, include political systems, organizations, and institutions. With a systems approach, an object is considered as a set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. For example, among political institutions an important place belongs to the state. When analyzing it, the main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the state (system) and in its relationships with the external environment (other political institutions within the country, states). Using the systematic method, it is also possible to clearly determine the place of politics in the development of society, its most important functions, and opportunities for implementing reforms. However, the systematic method is ineffective when analyzing individual behavior in politics (for example, the role of a leader), when considering conflicts and studying crisis situations.

Psychological The method is focused on studying the subjective mechanisms of people's political behavior, their individual qualities, character traits, as well as identifying the typical mechanisms of psychological motivations and the role of subconscious factors in political life. The mechanisms of subconscious motivation have been studied by many scientists, but a special role in this direction belongs to S. Freud. In his opinion, human actions are based on unconscious desires for sexual pleasure (libido). But they conflict with widespread social restrictions. The dissatisfaction and internal conflicts that arise on this basis lead to the sublimation (i.e., switching) of the energy of instincts into various areas of life, including the socio-political sphere. In general, psychologism plays a significant role in studies of the political sphere in a number of areas:

Impact psychological factors on the development and adoption of political decisions and their perception by citizens;

Optimization of the image of government or the political system;

Creation of psychological portraits of leaders;

Analysis of the dependence of citizens' political behavior on their inclusion in the social environment;

Study of the psychological characteristics of various social groups (ethnicities, classes, interest groups, crowds, demographics, etc.), etc.

Made a kind of revolution in political science behaviorist method. Behaviorism (from English - behavior) is literally the science of behavior. The essence of behaviorism is the study of politics through the concrete study of the varied behavior of individuals and groups. The starting point of behaviorism is the assertion that human behavior is a reaction to the influence of the external environment. This reaction can be observed and described. Politics, behaviorists argue, has a personal dimension. Collective, group actions of people, one way or another, go back to the behavior of specific individuals, who are the main object of political research. Behaviorism rejects political institutions as an object of study and recognizes as such the behavior of individuals in political situations. Behaviorism played a significant role in the formation and development of comparative and applied political science. It was within the framework of behaviorism that the concrete empirical methods used by political science received comprehensive development. The group of concrete empirical methods includes: population surveys, analysis of statistical material, study of documents, game methods, mathematical modeling, study of folklore (ditties, jokes, etc.), etc.

Polls population, which are carried out both in the form of questionnaires and interviews, provide rich factual material for identifying various kinds of patterns. And their careful analysis makes it possible to make political forecasts. Analysis of statistical materials allows you to obtain fairly reliable results in identifying trends in the development of political processes. Studying documents includes analysis of official materials: party programs, transcripts of government and parliamentary meetings, various kinds of reports, as well as diaries and memoirs. Film, photo documents and posters may be of significant interest. Application gaming methods makes it possible to simulate the development of a particular political phenomenon (negotiations, conflict, etc.). This allows researchers to reveal the internal mechanisms of the phenomenon being studied and provide recommendations for decision-making. Mathematical modeling method consists of studying political processes and phenomena through the development and study of models. For example, measurement, descriptive, explanatory and predictive models are distinguished by purpose.

Today, in connection with the improvement of computers and software, modeling of political macro- and microprocesses has become one of the primary directions in the development of the methodology of political science.

General theoretical Specific empirical

Institutional Surveys

Historical Analysis of Statistical Materials

Comparative Study of Documents

System Gaming

Psychological Mathematical Modeling

Behaviorist Study of folklore

Scheme 3 Main research methods used by political science

The role of political science especially increases in the conditions of a reformed society, when it is necessary to make serious changes in the structure of the political system, in the content of the political process and the nature of power. Political science helps solve problems that arise along the way, regulate public consciousness and control the political behavior of various groups of people.

Literature

1. Borisenko A.A. On the subject and content of political science. // Social and humanitarian knowledge. – 2001. - No. 4.

2. Gabrielyan O. Political science in Ukraine: state and prospects. // Political thought. – 2001. - No. 4

3. Kim Hong Myont. Tasks of political science in market conditions. // Policy. – 2001. - No. 5.

4. Nikorich A.V. Political science. Basic handbook for students of technical universities of all specialties.-Kharkiv, 2001.

5. Picha V.M., Khoma N.M. Political science. Chief assistant. - K., 2001.

6. Political science: Textbook for universities / Ed. M.A. Vasilika. – M.. 2001.

7. Political science: A handbook for students of advanced knowledge / Edited by O. V. Babkina, V. P. Gorbatenko. – K., 2001.

8. Tax O. Ukrainian science about politics. Trying to assess potential. // Political management. – 2004. - No. 1.

LECTURE No. 1

Definition of the concept "political science"

Political science is the science of politics, the patterns of emergence of political phenomena (institutions of relations, processes), the methods and forms of their functioning and development, methods of managing political processes, political consciousness, culture, etc.

There are many definitions of the concept “political science”. For example, some researchers view political science as in a broad sense, as a science that studies the entire body of heterogeneous, multi-scale and multi-level knowledge about politics and the political in all their manifestations. In this case, we mean the entire set of political sciences: political philosophy, political economics, political law, etc. The concept of “political sciences” is best suited to such a broad view of political science.

In our study, we consider political science in the narrow sense, as a science designed to directly study the political sphere of society: political power, political institutions, relationships, processes and patterns of their functioning.

In addition, we need to emphasize the differences between political science as a science, whose task is to study political reality, and political science as an academic discipline, the purpose of which is the accumulation and transmission of knowledge about politics. more of people.

The role and significance of political science as a science and as an academic discipline

The functions of political science as a science and as an academic discipline have much in common, but there are also certain differences. Let us consider separately each type of political science function.

1. Political science as a science is a necessary theoretical basis for the further development of political research and for the introduction of scientific developments into real politics.

Political science studies actually existing political systems, ways of organizing society and the state, types of political regimes, forms of government, the activities of political parties and public organizations, the state of political consciousness and political culture, patterns of political behavior, problems of the effectiveness and legitimacy of political leadership, ways of forming institutions of power and much more.

Political research creates a certain theoretical, scientific and methodological basis necessary for the development of political science itself and for improving the political sphere of society. Scientific knowledge in the field of politics allows us to predict and construct political reality, monitor positive and negative trends in the development of political processes and, if necessary, make the necessary adjustments.

Political science as a science can also perform certain ideological functions. For example, to form certain ideals, needs, values ​​and thereby consolidate society to achieve certain goals (for example, building a rule of law state).

2. Political science as an academic discipline faces an equally important task. In our country, during the periods of dominance of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes of power (1917 - 1985), political science did not exist as an academic discipline. It was easier for the reactionary regime to control politically illiterate people.

People's lack of knowledge about politics, the structure of the political system, methods of forming government bodies and their functional purpose finally, about their personal rights and freedoms, allows various kinds of political adventurers, using demagoguery and lies, to carry out their Jesuit experiments on entire countries and peoples with impunity.

The task of political science as an academic discipline is to help people understand all the intricacies of politics, teach them to correctly understand (perceive) the existing social and political system, and adequately respond to the emerging political situation. Political science should contribute to the development of a civil political culture in people, so that they are able to defend their rights and interests and at the same time respect the interests and rights of others. It is necessary to instill in people intolerance to any form of totalitarianism, violence, usurpation of power, and violations of individual rights and freedoms.
Therefore, political education, mass political literacy of people are a necessary condition for building a rule of law state and the formation of a civil society.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

KHARKIV NATIONAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER

V. N. KARAZINA

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Study guide for students

correspondence and distance learning

Kharkov – 2009

UDC 32:001.891.3(075.4)

Nazarenko S.I. Political science. Study guide for students

correspondence and distance learning. 2nd edition add. - X.:

Kharkov National University named after. V. N. Karazina, 2009. –

This textbook is intended for students studying via correspondence and distance learning. It reveals the main program material for the political science course in an accessible and well-structured form. In addition, the manual has test questions and abstracts on each topic. The diagrams included here provide a visual representation of the basic concepts and categories of this training course. A list of recommended readings is included at the end.

Reviewers:

D. Philosopher Sci., Professor of the Department of Political Science, Faculty of Philosophy, V. N. Karazin Kharkov National University I. D. Denisenko;

PhD in Philosophy, Associate Professor of the Department of Political Science, Philosophy

Faculty of Kharkov National University

named after V. N. Karazin A. N. Dovbnya

© Kharkov National University

named after V.N. Karazina, 2009.

© Nazarenko S.I., 2009.

POLITICAL SCIENCE: TUTORIAL

for part-time and distance learning students

Introduction

Political science as a science and academic discipline

Major milestones in the history of political thought

Development of political thought in Ukraine

Politics as a social phenomenon

Power

Political regime

Political system of society

The state is the main institution of the political system

Civil society and the rule of law

Political culture and political socialization

Personalities

Political leadership

Political elites

Interest groups and social movements

Political parties and party systems

Electoral systems and political process

Political conflict

Political ideologies

INTRODUCTION

The democratic reconstruction of the modern world community is associated with the politicization of broad sections of the population. On the path of political transformation, the tasks of spiritual renewal of society, the introduction of an interconnected system of new value orientations, the formation of a humanistic political culture, a new personality taking an active part in politics are put forward.

The “quality” of political participation and the ability to make rational decisions in political life do not develop spontaneously; they are formed in the course of the systematic acquisition of knowledge and experience. Society needs knowledge that would allow people to understand complex political phenomena and events and consciously act in the direction of realizing their interests. The study of political science is aimed at acquiring such knowledge - compulsory subject in the university education program. As a result of studying political science, the student gains knowledge about the subject and methods of political science, its place in the system of social sciences and humanities, learns the essence of politics and power, the principles of operation of political institutions, the evolution of political systems and political culture, and much more.

The content of the manual is designed to help distance learning students study political science. The manual briefly examines the 17 main topics of the course. Abstract reports are recommended for each topic. Their preparation requires in-depth theoretical analysis one or another political problem. The abstract is prepared based on the study of several sources: monographs, journal articles, etc. The abstract contains the student’s own assessments and conclusions.

This manual has been prepared in such a way as to make mastering the academic discipline “political science” as easy as possible. To control (and self-control) the degree of mastery of the topic, control questions and assignments are highlighted. When studying the course, diagrams should be used that clearly reflect political phenomena in a structural and logical form. Consideration of the diagrams in conjunction with textual material and recommended literature will help to understand and better understand the inner essence of complex political issues.

Topic 1. Political science as a science and academic discipline

1. The emergence and development of political science.

2. The concept of the political. Subject and language of political science.

3. Methods of political science and its functions.

Since the emergence of human civilization, politics has continuously interfered with the lives of people even far from it, changing the appearance and conditions of existence of entire nations.

The subordination of politics to the interests of man and humanity is impossible without its scientific understanding. The science of politics helps to deeply understand political reality, control the course of political events, and build relationships between people on the principles of reason and humanism. If conducting political research and obtaining scientific knowledge is the work of mainly professional scientists, then mastering the fundamentals of political science, the norms and values ​​of civilized political communication is the task of every citizen and the entire society.

1. Political science and political thought are close, but not identical concepts. Political thought has existed as long as politics has existed. It arose in ancient times and continues to develop today. The political teachings of the past in the strict sense of the word cannot be identified with modern political science, although the fact of continuity and genetic connection between them cannot be denied.

What is political science, when and how did it arise, and what cognitive methods and means does it use?

Political science (“political science”) is the scientific expression of political thought. It exists in the form scientific research, specifically devoted to political issues. Back in the 16th century, Niccolo Machiavelli identified political research as an independent scientific direction, placed the problems of state and power at the center of analysis, and developed a whole range of methods for the struggle for power. His work not only marked a major step towards the transformation of political science into an independent science, but also contributed to the rapprochement of theory and practice, the subordination of political research to the solution of real problems of the struggle for power and its retention.

Political science received its further development in the works of Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Madison, Tocqueville, Weber, Marx, Engels and other thinkers. However, despite the presence of fairly broad political research, until the second half of the 19th century, political science developed without independent disciplinary formalization. The process of formation and separation of political science from the general system of social sciences and humanities took several decades, which occurred at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

Political science first appeared as an academic subject in the 19th century. at major US universities. Thus, in 1857, the department of history and political science was created at Columbia College, headed by F. Lieber. In 1880, the first school of political science was opened in the same college. By including a course in political science in the curriculum, the leadership of American universities met the increased demand for specialists in public administration and political analysts. Political science began to be seen as a means of forming a new political elite, for which politics became the main profession. In subsequent years, a whole network of political science educational and scientific institutes was created in America, which made it possible to establish the American Political Science Association in 1903, which today has over 16 thousand members.

At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. the term “political science” itself is gaining recognition and distribution in Europe. In Germany, this process is associated with the formation and development of the so-called “legal school”. In Great Britain, the most serious impetus for the formation of political science came at the end of the 19th century. London School of Economics and Political Science at the University of London. In France, political science was born at the intersection of state science, political history and sociology. In 1896, one of the most prominent European political scientists and sociologists, Italian G. Mosca, called his work, which later became a classic, “Elements of Political Science.”

At the beginning of the twentieth century. the process of separating political science into an independent academic discipline is basically completed. The development of political research was significantly promoted by the creation in 1949 under the auspices of UNESCO of the International Association of Political Science (IAPS), which continues its fruitful activities today. Since 1955, the MAPS has included the Soviet Association of Political Sciences. Only in the late 80s. political science began to be taught in universities of Eastern Europe and the USSR. In Ukraine, political science as a new academic course appeared in Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, Dnepropetrovsk universities, as well as (somewhat later) in other universities. Nowadays in Ukraine specialists-political scientists are being trained, candidate and doctoral dissertations are being defended, scientific and educational literature, special journals and political science collections.

2. Let us consider specifically what political science is as a science. First, let's understand the etymology of this word. The term “political science” itself is derived from two ancient Greek words - politika - politics and logos - word, doctrine, science. Consequently, etymologically, political science is translated into Russian as the science of politics. (The authors of many textbooks are inclined towards this interpretation of political science.)

Each science has its own object and subject. Therefore, in order to understand what political science is as a science, it is necessary to establish the object and subject of the study of political science. Among scientists there are different points of view on this matter. Let's highlight only two of them. Some scientists believe that the object of political science is the sphere of politics, political reality, the political life of the individual and society. And the subject of political science is the patterns of specific manifestations, processes and relations of political reality, which are studied by political scientists. Many political scientists agree that, in general, the object and subject of political science is the political sphere with all its phenomena and processes, the political life of society, its essence, forms and patterns. For example, K. S. Gadzhiev believes that in the modern socio-political system as an integral society, the following interconnected and interdependent subsystems are distinguished: production (economic), social, spiritual and political (see diagram No. 1 ). The production subsystem provides the material infrastructure. The social and spiritual spheres together constitute civil society, which can be designated as a single subsystem (this problem will be discussed in the corresponding topic). And the task of the political subsystem is to provide a mechanism for realizing the common will and common interest of all the main elements of the system.

The set of problems that political science deals with can be grouped into 3 large sections:

1. socio-philosophical and ideological-theoretical foundations of politics, system-forming features and characteristics of the political subsystem, political paradigms corresponding to a particular historical period;

2. political systems and political culture, differences and similarities between various political systems, political regimes and the conditions for their change and change;

3. political institutions, political process, political behavior, etc.

Moreover, we are not talking about the hierarchical subordination of these three blocks, but about the greater or lesser importance of one or another of them. The ideological and theoretical foundations of politics cannot be understood in isolation from a specific political system, and it, in turn, without specific political institutions. Political science research includes three important aspects: 1) historical, 2) concrete empirical and 3) theoretical.

The fundamental objects of political science research are the state, power and power relations, which form the core of the political. But the study of these phenomena is impossible without an integrated approach to the analysis of the economic, sociocultural, philosophical and sociopolitical aspects of society. Each of them has its own functional and structural features. Therefore, the task of political science in this regard is much broader than the problems of state legal disciplines. Political science refers to the study of states and power relations primarily as social phenomena, as institutions of the political organization of society, which has as its main goal the realization of general interest.

Thus, political science – the science of politics, the forms and patterns of functioning of political power; about the formation and development of political relations, processes and systems.

Main categories of political science: politics, political interests, political power, political regime, political system, political relations, political culture (see diagram No. 2 ).

Political phenomena are undoubtedly of interest, first of all, in the state in which they are at a given moment in time, and the task of political science is to clarify the structure of the political phenomenon, its elements and functions, and the conditions for normal functioning.

Many sciences are relevant to the study of the political sphere of social life: philosophy, sociology, theory of state and law, history, political geography, etc. Such a wide field of research is explained by the fact that politics is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The expediency and necessity of studying politics from different angles is recognized by many scientists, including political scientists. Disagreements begin when deciding the place of political science among other political sciences. When addressing this issue, two positions are clearly distinguished in the literature. The first proceeds from the fact that political science is only one of the sciences about politics. The second position is that political science should represent a general integration science of politics in all its manifestations.

In accordance with the second approach, political science is considered as a holistic, internally differentiated, interdisciplinary science, consisting of a number of branches of political knowledge, that is, its structure includes: political philosophy, theory of politics, political sociology, political history, political psychology, political anthropology, theory of international politics , political geography, etc.

Political language

Political phenomena cannot be understood without the system of communication and mechanisms of political communication. Language can be considered both as a means and as a medium of communication. In terms of its importance as a subject of political research, political language can be placed next to such problems as the decision-making process and the electoral process.

To the greatest extent, political language is reflected in the categories that political science operates as a scientific discipline. It is in the process of studying political science that it is possible to gain the most complete understanding of what political language is.

An integral part of political language is political gestures. Certain individual or collective gestures play a significant role in socio-political life. Such gestures, for example, include: voting, applause, greetings in various ways, active demonstration of various political symbols during political rallies; expressions of disapproval and protest through whistling, stomping, etc.; demonstrative departure from a political event in protest; demonstrative burning of any political symbols (flags, party cards, portraits, etc.) and much more as a sign of protest.

The importance of the so-called symbolic communication in ensuring the viability and regulation of modern political systems. Language acts as a link political society, as a tool for maintaining the necessary information level of society. We especially emphasize that political language is a kind of “indicator” of the level of political culture of a particular society.

3. The various methods used by political science allow for a deep and comprehensive understanding of its subject and largely characterize the level of its development.

« Methods at most general view– these are techniques and ways of achieving a certain result in the practical and cognitive activities of people” [PES – p. 177].

What methods does political science use? Most authors talk about three groups of methods: the first is universal philosophical methods used by political science as one of the social and human sciences, along with philosophy, sociology, etc. (materialist dialectics, positivist and pragmatic methods).

The second group is methods of empirical research, obtaining primary information about political facts. These include: the use of statistics (primarily electoral statistics), content analysis, which involves the targeted study of certain documents (constitutions, laws, party programs, speeches in the media by political leaders, etc.); factor analysis, which reduces a lot of empirical data to the basic, defining ones. This methodological technique allows you to create cognitive maps that record the most typical manifestations of a particular political behavior. Methods of collecting information such as observation and questioning are also of certain importance.

The third group of methods is the actual methods of political science. These include:

1) sociological method - involves clarifying the dependence of politics on society, the social conditionality of political phenomena, including the impact on the political system economic relations, social structure, ideology, culture;

2) behaviorist– the essence of which is the study of politics through a specific study of the diverse behavior of individuals and groups;

3) normative-valued– involves clarifying the meaning of political phenomena for society and the individual, assessing them from the point of view common good and justice, freedom, respect for human dignity, etc.;

4) functional– requires the study of dependencies between political phenomena that manifest themselves in experience, for example, the relationships between the level of economic development and political system;

5) systemic– consists of considering politics as an integral, self-regulating mechanism that is in continuous interaction with environment through the input and output of the system (50-60s of the twentieth century - D. Easton, T. Parsons);

6) anthropological– is in many ways the opposite of the sociological method. It requires studying the conditionality of politics not by social factors, but by the nature of man as a generic being;

7) psychological- similar to anthropological. However, unlike the latter, he does not mean a person in general as a representative of the species, but a specific individual, which involves taking into account the characteristics of individual development. The most important place Psychoanalysis, the foundations of which were developed by S. Freud, is a psychological method. Psychoanalysis places unconscious mental processes and motivations at the center of its study;

8) comparative– involves a comparison of similar political phenomena: government systems, political parties, electoral systems, etc. The use of this method broadens the horizons of research and contributes to the fruitful use of the experience of other countries and peoples (the development of a special branch of knowledge - comparative political science).

There are other research methods (induction, deduction, modeling, interviewing, etc.) that help more fully reveal the content of political science. Due to the complexity and multidimensionality of political objects, when studying them, as a rule, not just one, but a certain combination, a combination of various types of methods is used.

Political science, as noted above, is closely related to the life of society. Like any other science, political science appeared as a result of certain social needs, and therefore all its development, the elaboration of one or another problem, is aimed at satisfying these needs. The social purpose of political science is determined by the functions that it performs for the individual and society as a whole.

Functions:

Theoretical-cognitive (allows you to reveal objective trends in political development, realistically assess political situations);

Methodological (by revealing the general laws of politics, it creates the basis for other social sciences);

Educational (promotes the political socialization of the individual, the formation of political consciousness and political culture);

Regulatory (provides the influence of people and organizations on the political process, their participation in political events);

Analytical (analysis, assessment of the results of political actions),

Prognostic (allows you to predict the development of political processes and timely adjust policies);

Worldview (allows you to correctly assess the relationship between universal, state, class, national, group and personal interests and determine your place in the political life of society).

Questions and tasks for the topic:

1. What do you understand by political science? What is its place and role among

other social sciences and humanities.

2. What does modern political science study? What is the difference

existing points of view on the subject of political science?

3. How can one explain the existence within the framework of one political science?

many particular political disciplines?

4. Name the main stages of the formation and evolution of political science.

5. What does the sociological method provide for understanding the nature of politics?

6. Expand the significance of the behaviorist method of political science.

7. What are the disadvantages of the value-normative approach?

Abstract topics:

2. Political science and other social and human sciences.

The process of formation of political science as a science originates in the Ancient world. This is evidenced by the largest works of that time, the subject of research in which were some elements of what today constitutes the sphere of the political. During the same period, a concept appeared to denote this branch of knowledge. Thus, in a number of works, Aristotle writes about politics as a science, and in his work “Rhetoric” he uses the concept of “political science”: “However, let us now talk about issues ... that are important for political science.” The completion of the process of formation of political science as an independent science should be associated with the period of differentiation of sciences and the isolation of political knowledge from the totality of philosophical, historical, legal and other knowledge during the period of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

As an independent academic discipline, political science has a relatively short history. In the second half of the 19th century. The Department of History and Political Science was opened at Columbia College (USA). In 1872, the first school of political sciences was founded in France - the “Private School of Political Education”. It trained the ruling elite for the state apparatus.

An important milestone in the history of political science as a science and as an academic discipline was the formation in 1903 in the USA of the American Political Science Association, which at that time united about 200 researchers and teachers. Then, under the auspices of UNESCO and on the initiative of the American, Canadian, French and Indian national associations of political sciences, the International Association of Political Science (IAPS) was founded in 1949. The 1st IAPS Congress was held in 1950, in which scientists from 23 countries took part. Since then, IAPS congresses have been held at intervals of three years. Last Congress took place in 2000 in the Canadian city of Quebec.

Research and teaching of political issues in Russia in late XIX- early 20th century was carried out mainly within the framework of legal disciplines, as well as through the efforts of historians, philosophers, and sociologists.

In post-revolutionary Soviet times, political science was not taught as a special academic discipline. Certain aspects of politics and power were very briefly discussed in historical, economic, philosophical courses, and in the theory of socialism. Behind this fact one can see a general trend indicating that under certain political regimes there are no conditions and opportunities for constant, in-depth research and a more or less systematic and broad study of politics. Problems of politics and power were explored and studied only to the extent permitted.

It is known that for any science information is its bread. However, information about the functioning of power in the USSR was sealed under seven seals. Only decades later did the procedures for discussion and decision-making (there are still few fundamental changes in this area), the mechanisms for forming the political elite, etc., become known to the public and researchers. Almost no major works on the problems of power and politics were published during the Soviet period. This is evidenced by the extremely poor bibliography on these issues for the specified time. Foreign research was also difficult for the scientific community to access. The same literature that appeared was basically ideologized and apologetic in nature. And this is understandable, since for the development of science, in addition to freedom of access to information, freedom of speech is necessary. The situation in this area was quite accurately described by the revolutionary, writer and diplomat Fyodor Raskolnikov back in 1939 in an open letter to Stalin: “You have deprived Soviet scientists, especially in the field of the humanities, of a minimum of freedom of scientific thought, without which the creative work of a researcher becomes impossible.” Of course, in addition to freedom of speech, a researcher of politics and power also needs honesty and courage, but these traits are always in great short supply. This is what G. Arbatov, who was the director of the Institute of the USA and Canada during Brezhnev’s times, writes about the scientific atmosphere of that era: workers in the social sciences “...were mired in impenetrable dogmatism and scolding, incessant apologetics of the “great theorist” ....”

And in post-Stalin times the situation has changed little. As the famous cultural theorist V.V. Zhuravlev writes: “social sciences were assigned a protective and apologetic function” and most social scientists understood the implementation of this function as the most important party and professional duty, as an expression of civic position.

Those authors who crossed the line were persecuted, expelled from the country, or were forced to go abroad to be able to work in the field of policy research. Here we should name the now well-known names of authors who invaded the area of ​​the prohibited (mainly historians and philosophers), who wrote “from afar”: A. Avtorkhanov, M. Voslensky, A. Zinoviev, P. Egides, A. Nekrich, A. Yanov. It is important to note that in Soviet times and after the death of Stalin, not a single periodical was published specifically intended for public discussion by scientists of the results of research in the field of politics and power. A significant indicator of the state of power studies is the following fact: in the sixth edition of the “Concise Political Dictionary”, which appeared in 1989, i.e. just a decade and a half ago, the articles “Power” and “Political Power” are missing.

It is only in the last fifteen years that the situation has changed fundamentally for policy research. A significant number of works by domestic and foreign authors have appeared, which present the most important results of domestic and world political science.

Since the late 80s of the 20th century, then still in the USSR, and then in modern Russia, political science began to be actively constituted as an independent branch of knowledge and academic discipline:

• the academic degree of candidate and doctor of political sciences is being introduced;
• the teaching of political science is being introduced in universities, departments and faculties of political science are appearing, curricula, courses and special courses are being developed, textbooks on political science prepared by Russian authors are being published;
• Political science journals begin to be published (“Polis” since 1991, “Vlast” since 1993, “Polity” since 1997, “Political Sciences. Bulletin of Moscow State University” since 1994, “Bulletin of Moscow State University. Sociology and Political Science” since 1994, etc.).

In February 1998, the First, and in April 2000, the Second All-Russian Congress of Political Scientists took place. The topics of the sections of the First Congress can testify to the problems that stand at the center of Russian political science:

• Section. “Russian statehood: problems and development trends”;
• Section. “The formation of civil society in Russia: prospects for democratic development”;
• Section. “Geopolitical interests of Russia: challenges and answers”;
• Section. “Political education in modern Russia, problems of teaching political science”;
• Section. “Applied political science: theory and practice”;
• Section. “Political communication: public opinion and the media”;
• Section. "Problems of military political science."

At the Second All-Russian Congress of Political Scientists (April 2000), the number of sections and problems discussed at them increased.

In April 2003, the Third All-Russian Congress of Political Scientists took place in Moscow. Within the framework of the congress, discussions and discussions were conducted in the following areas: political philosophy, methodological problems of political research, methods of teaching political science, history of political ideas, political anthropology, comparative political science, political governance and political institutions, public policy as an instrument of Russian choice, political regionalism, political parties and interest groups, political elites, electoral political science, gender studies of politics, discourse analysis, political sociology, civil society and human rights, transnational processes, world politics, conflicts and international security.

Russian political science is in the process of its formation. The most important tasks of this stage: further assimilation of the rich world experience in research into the world of politics; identifying the national specifics of Russian policy and substantiating the most effective methods and the methodology of its research; The problem of de-statization of political science knowledge remains relevant for Russian political science.

POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

Introduction

3. Research methods used in political science

Literature

Introduction

Politics can be found at the basis of all processes occurring in society, although not everything in human relations can be reduced to politics. In modern conditions there is no person who could say that he is outside the radius of action of politics. Even if a person considers himself apolitical, he is forced to recognize and at the same time respect the decisions of political authorities. Knowledge of politics meets the interests of every person who strives to understand his place and role in society, to better satisfy his needs in community with other people, and to influence the choice of goals and means of their implementation in the state.

People understand politics in two main ways: through ordinary views, gained from everyday practical experience, and through scientific knowledge, which is the result of research. Everyday, unsystematized ideas about politics have existed for many millennia. In one form or another they are inherent in every person. Reflecting primarily the practical side of political phenomena, everyday knowledge can be true or false. In general, they do not reflect reality deeply and comprehensively and therefore cannot serve as a reliable guide for a person in the world of politics. Political science and its study are designed to provide all this.

1. Object and subject of political science, its relationship with other sciences

The concept of "political science" comes from two Greek words - politike (state affairs) and logos (teaching). Political science as an independent branch of knowledge emerged at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, when thinkers began to explain political processes using scientific rather than religious and mythological arguments. The foundations of scientific political theory were laid by N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, S.-L. Montesquieu and others. Political science as an independent scientific discipline began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In 1857, F. Leiber began teaching a course in political science at Columbia College; in 1880, the first school of political science was created in the same college, which marked the beginning of the active formation of a system of political science educational and scientific institutions in the United States. And in 1903, the American Political Science Association was created, and in the same year a political journal began to be published. In France, the teaching of “political and moral sciences” began during the Great French Revolution. In Great Britain, the London School of Economics and Political Science has been operating since 1885, where government officials and managers at various levels are trained. In 1896, the Italian political scientist and sociologist G. Mosca published the book “Elements of Political Science,” which gives reason to talk about the expansion of political science in Europe since the end of the 19th century. The process of establishing political science as an independent science and academic discipline was completed in 1948. In this year, the International Association of Political Science was created under the auspices of UNESCO. At the International Congress she held (Paris, 1948) on political science, the content of this science was determined and it was recommended to include a course in political science for study in the system higher education as a compulsory discipline. It was decided that the main components of political science are: 1) political theory; 2) political institutions; 3) parties, groups and public opinion; 4) international relations. In our country, political science was considered for a long time as a bourgeois theory, a pseudoscience, and therefore was in its infancy. Certain political science problems were considered within the framework of historical materialism, scientific communism, the history of the CPSU, and other social sciences. Moreover, their study was dogmatic and one-sided. Political science as a new academic course began to be taught in all higher educational institutions of Ukraine only after the collapse of the USSR. As an independent science, political science has its own object and specific subject of knowledge.

The object of political science is the sphere of political relations in society.

The sphere of political relations is much wider than what could be called purely political. It includes the processes of functioning and development of power, inclusion of the masses in politics, economic, social and spiritual interests of society. The political sphere represents the interaction in the political process of large and small social groups, associations of citizens, and individuals. The political sphere includes socio-political institutions and organizations through which interaction takes place between individual political subjects.

The subject of political science is the patterns of formation and development of political power, the forms and methods of its functioning and use in a state-organizational society. The uniqueness of political science lies in the fact that it considers all social phenomena and processes in relation to political power. Without power there can be no politics, since it is power that acts as the means of its implementation. The category “political power” is universal and covers all political phenomena. For example, the problems of reform of the political system, which are very hotly discussed in our state. From the point of view of legal science, they represent a dispute about the content of legal norms; from the point of view of political science, they are a theoretical reflection of the struggle of various social forces for the possession of economic and political power in society. Thus, political science is a system of knowledge about politics, political power, political relations and processes, and the organization of the political life of society. Political science arose and is developing in interaction with many sciences that study individual aspects of politics as a social phenomenon. (see diagram 1) History and geography, law and sociology, philosophy and economics, psychology and cybernetics and a number of other sciences have their own approaches to the study of various aspects of politics. Each of them has as its subject the study of one or another aspect of the sphere of political relations, ranging from methodological to specific applied issues. History studies real socio-political processes and different points of view on these processes. Thus, it allows one to find out and explain the reasons for current political processes. Philosophy creates a general picture of the world, clarifies the place of man and his activities in this world, gives general concepts about the principles and conditions of knowledge, the development of theoretical concepts in general, political ones in particular. Economic theory considers economic processes as the basis of the political sphere, which makes it possible to understand the nature of political relations. The law outlines the general framework for the activities of all government agencies, as well as other organizations, citizens and their associations, i.e. framework for the formation of phenomena central to politics. Sociology provides political science with information about the functioning of society as a system, about the interaction of different social groups in the aspect of political relations. Particularly valuable for political science are the methodological developments of sociology regarding the conduct of empirical research (questionnaires, content analysis, expert surveys, etc.). ). Political science is closely related to psychology. Analyzing human activity in the political sphere, a political scientist uses concepts developed by psychological science: “needs”, “interests”, “ideals”, etc. In its research, political science also relies on data from political geography and political anthropology, and uses materials from political global studies. In the last decade, a number of special political science disciplines have appeared: political modeling, political imageology, political marketing, etc. Sciences such as cybernetics, logic, statistics, systems theory give political science a form, quantitative measurements, structures for presenting scientific messages from the point of view of abstract interpretations of political phenomena and processes.

Scheme 1 Interrelation of political science with other sciences