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The essence of sociological research

Social life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological research. However, not every study of a social object is actually a sociological study.

Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the social object, phenomenon and process being studied. Sociological research should be based on the use of specific scientific methods, techniques and procedures specific to sociology.

For a clear and clear understanding of the essence of the sociological research process, it is necessary to understand the system and essence of the concepts that are most often used in the process of sociological research.

Methodology - the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge and transformation of reality. It is divided into general, applied by any science, and private, reflecting the specifics of knowledge of a particular science.

Sociological research method is a way of constructing and justifying a knowledge system. In sociology, the method is also general scientific theoretical methods, (abstraction, comparative, typological, systemic, etc.), and specific empirical methods (mathematical and statistical, methods of collecting sociological information: survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).

Any sociological study involves several stages :

1. Preparation of the study. This stage consists of thinking about the goal, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the research, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information.

2. Collection of primary sociological information. Collection of non-generalized information in various forms (records from researchers, responses from respondents, extracts from documents, etc.).

3. Preparation of collected information for processing and actual processing of the received information.

4. Analysis of processed information, preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, as well as formulation of conclusions, development of recommendations and proposals for the customer.

Types of sociological research.

According to the way of knowing, according to the nature of the sociological knowledge obtained, they distinguish:

· theoretical research . A feature of theoretical research is that the researcher works not with the object (phenomenon) itself, but with concepts that reflect this object (phenomenon);

· empirical studies . The main content of such research is the collection and analysis of factual, real data about the object (phenomenon).

By using the final results studies are distinguished:

Most empirical studies have applied nature , i.e. the results obtained find practical application in various fields public life.

Sociologists also conduct basic research , which

· fundamental - aimed at the development of science. These studies are initiated by scientists, departments, universities and conducted by academic institutions to test theoretical hypotheses and concepts.

· applied - aimed at solving practical problems. Most often, clients of empirical research are commercial structures, political parties, government agencies, and local governments.

Depending on the repeatability of the studies, there are:

· one-time - allow you to get an idea of ​​the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at a given moment;

· repeated - are used to identify dynamics and changes in their development.

According to the nature of the goals and objectives, as well as according to the width and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into:

· intelligence (aerobatic, sounding). With the help of such research it is possible to solve very limited problems. In essence, this is a “run-in” of the tools. Toolkit in sociology they refer to documents with the help of which primary information is collected. These include a questionnaire, an interview form, a questionnaire, and a card for recording observation results.

· descriptive. Descriptive research is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently developed program and on the basis of proven tools. Descriptive research is usually used when the subject is a relatively large community of people with different characteristics. This could be the population of a city, district, region where people of different age categories live and work, level of education, marital status, financial security, etc.

· analytical. Such studies aim at the most in-depth study of a phenomenon, when it is necessary not only to describe the structure and find out what determines its main quantitative and qualitative parameters. According to the methods used for collecting sociological information, the analytical research is comprehensive. In it, complementing each other, various forms of questioning, document analysis, and observation can be used.

Preparation of sociological research

Any sociological research begins with the development of its program. The sociological research program can be viewed in two aspects. On the one hand, it represents the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a specific methodological model of research, which sets out methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them.

Sociological Research Program is a scientific document that reflects a logically substantiated scheme of transition from a theoretical understanding of the problem to the tools of specific empirical research. The sociological research program is the main document of scientific research, containing the basic methodological and methodological research procedures.

1. Formulation of the problem situation. The reason for conducting sociological research is the actual contradiction that has arisen in the development of the social system, between its subsystems or individual elements of these subsystems; this kind of contradiction constitutes the essence of the problem.

2. Definition of the object and subject of research. Formulating a problem inevitably entails defining the object of research. An object - this is a phenomenon or process at which sociological research is aimed (the area of ​​social reality, the activities of people, the people themselves). The object must be a carrier of contradiction. The object must be characterized by:

· clear designations of the phenomenon, according to such parameters as professional affiliation (industry); spatial limitation (region, city, village); functional orientation (production, political, household);

· a certain time limitation;

· the possibility of its quantitative measurement.

Item - that side of the object that is directly subject to study. Usually the subject contains the central question of the problem, associated with the assumption of the possibility of detecting a pattern or central tendency of the contradiction being studied.

After substantiating the problems, defining the object and subject, the purpose and objectives of the research can be formulated, the basic concepts are defined and interpreted.

Purpose of the study - the general focus of the research, the action plan, which determine the nature and systemic ordering of various acts and operations.

Research objective - This is a set of specific goals aimed at analyzing and solving a problem, i.e. what needs to be done specifically to achieve the purpose of the study.

Interpretation of basic concepts - this is a procedure for searching for empirical values ​​of the main theoretical provisions of the study, a process of transition to simpler and fixed components.

The sociologist constructs a preliminary explanation of the problem, i.e. formulates hypotheses. Sociological research hypothesis ovations - a scientific assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature and essence of the connection between social phenomena.

Function of a hypothesis: obtaining new scientific statements that improve or generalize existing knowledge.

After solving problems related to the implementation of the methodological section of the program, they move on to the methodological section. The creation of a methodological section of the program contributes to the concretization of the entire sociological research, as well as the transition from methodology to the practical solution of assigned problems. The structure of the methodological section of the program includes the following components: defining the population being studied or constructing a sample, justifying the methods and techniques for collecting sociological information, describing the methods of analysis and the logical scheme of data processing, drawing up a work plan for the study, developing a strategic plan for the study.

Sampling method in sociology. Currently, not a single mass sociological survey can do without the use of sampling. This is an extremely important stage in the development of the methodological section of the research program.

Sampling has not always played such a role in sociological research. Only starting from the 30s of the 20th century. the scale of the surveys began to expand up to national ones, which entailed a significant increase material costs for ongoing surveys. The basic principle of surveys conducted in those days was simple: the more respondents are surveyed, the better and more accurate the result will be. However, starting from the first half of the 30s of the 20th century, the study of public opinion began to be carried out using strict methods of scientific analysis. At this time, probability theory and mathematical statistics arose and began to actively develop. Even then, researchers established that, based on the laws of probability theory, it is possible to get an idea of ​​the whole from a relatively small sample population, and with a fairly high degree of accuracy.

In 1933, an unknown researcher at the time, J. Gallup, conducted a series of experimental sample surveys in the United States to study the readability of newspapers and magazines. In 1934, he tested his methods on a larger scale, during the elections to the US Congress, where he quite accurately predicted the victory of the Democrats. In 1935 he created the American Gallup Institute. In 1936, based on sample surveys he conducted, he predicted victory in presidential elections T. Roosevelt. The sample size was 1500 people. Since 1936, the sampling method has also been actively used in market research.

The basic idea of ​​a sample survey is that if there is a population of independent random variables, then it can be judged from a relatively small part. For example, a box contains 10 thousand balls, equally red and green. If you mix them and pull out 400 at random, it turns out that they are distributed approximately equally in color. If this operation is repeated many times, the result will be practically unchanged. Statistics allow you to determine the percentage of inaccuracy, which depends on the sample size.

The most important thing in the sampling method is that the structure of the entire population being studied is taken into account. Meanwhile, it is necessary to keep in mind that a sample survey is a survey with an error. In most studies, an error of 5% is acceptable. The larger the sample size, the smaller the error.

The sampling method of research allows us to draw a conclusion about the nature of the distribution of the studied characteristics of the general population (the set of elements that are the object of sociological research) based on consideration of only a certain part of it, called the sample population, or sample. Sample population - this is a reduced copy of the general population, or its micromodel, selected according to strictly specified rules and containing all its most important features and characteristics as a whole.

Let's consider the main methods of selecting a population into a sample, which determine the typology, or species diversity of the sampling method.

1. Random (probability) sampling - it is a sample constructed in such a way that any person or object within the population has an equal chance of being selected for analysis. Thus, this is a more strict definition of randomness than the one we use in everyday life, but it is almost the same as choosing using a lottery.

Types of probability sampling:

· simple random - constructed using a table of random numbers;

· systematic - carried out at intervals in the list of objects;

· serial - the units of random selection are certain nests, groups (families, groups, residential areas, etc.);

· multi-stage - random, in several stages, where at each stage the selection unit changes;

2. Non-random (purposeful) sampling - This is a method of selection in which it is impossible to calculate in advance the probability of each element being included in the sample population. With this approach, it is impossible to calculate the representativeness of the sample, so sociologists prefer probability sampling. At the same time, situations often arise when non-random sampling is the only possible option.

Types of non-random sampling:

· targeted - typical elements are selected according to established criteria;

· quota - is constructed as a model that reproduces the structure of the general population in the form of quotas for the distribution of characteristics of the objects being studied. Most often, gender, age, education, employment are taken into account;

· spontaneous - sampling of the “first person you come across”, where the criteria are not defined (an example is a regular postal survey of TV viewers, newspaper or magazine readers. In this case, it is almost impossible to indicate in advance the structure of the sample population, i.e. those respondents who fill out and send by mail questionnaires. Therefore, the conclusions of such a study can only be extended to a certain population).

Each type of sampling method is distinguished by one or another level of accuracy and has its own specific features, which makes it possible to optimally solve specific problems of sociological research.

Collection of sociological information

There are four main methods used to collect primary data:

1. Survey (questionnaire or interview);

2. Observation (not included and included);

3. Experiment (scientific and practical).

4. Document analysis (qualitative and quantitative);

Survey - a sociological method of obtaining information in which respondents (people being interviewed) are asked specially selected questions in written or oral form and asked to answer them.

Survey is the most common type of sociological research and at the same time the most widely used method of collecting primary information. With its help, from 70% to 90% of all sociological data are collected.

There are two types of sociological survey:

1. Questioning. When surveying, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, in the presence of the questionnaire or without him. The survey can be individual or group. The form of the survey can be either face-to-face or correspondence. The most common forms of the latter are mail survey and newspaper survey.

2. Interviewing. Involves direct communication between the interviewer and respondents. The interviewer asks the questions himself and records the answers. In terms of the form it can be carried out, it can be direct or indirect, for example, by telephone.

Depending on the source of information, there are:

a. Mass surveys. The source of information is representatives of large social groups (ethnic, religious, professional, etc.).

b. Specialized (expert) surveys. The main source of information is competent persons (experts) who have the professional and theoretical knowledge necessary for the researcher, life experience, which allows them to make authoritative conclusions.

The difference between a sociological survey and other surveys:

First distinguishing feature - number of respondents (sociologists interview hundreds and thousands of people and get public opinion, while other surveys interview one or more people and get personal opinion).

Second distinguishing feature - reliability and objectivity. It is closely related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. He averages out various opinions and as a result receives much more reliable information than, for example, a journalist.

Third distinguishing feature - the purpose of the survey is to expand scientific knowledge, enrich science, clarify typical empirical situations (in sociology), and not reveal individual characteristics and deviations (in journalism, medicine, investigation). Scientific facts obtained by sociologists are universal and of a universal nature.

Observation

Direct observation monitoring people’s behavior in a certain situation and immediately recording the results.

Scientific observation differs from ordinary observation in that it is subordinated to a clear research task, is planned according to a pre-thought-out procedure, data is recorded in protocols or diaries according to a certain system, information obtained through observation must be controllable for validity and stability.

According to the degree of formalization, they are distinguished:

1. uncontrollable (non-standard);

2. controlled observation.

In the first option, the researcher uses a general fundamental plan; in the second, events are recorded according to a detailed procedure. In this case, there is an observation form that is filled out by the observer; film and photographic documents are also used. For example, observing participants during business games, meetings, lectures, rallies, etc.

A series of observations by different observers is needed. Then the results are quite reliable.

Depending on the degree of participation of the observer in the social situation under study, the following are distinguished:

a) included ;

b) not included (external).

At the same time, it is important that the observer, by his presence, does not introduce fluctuations in the activities of the team, does not show outwardly increased interest, listens and remembers more, does not take anyone’s side, and does not write down his observations in plain sight.

The advantages of participant observations are obvious: they provide the most vivid direct observations and help to better understand people’s actions. But this is also associated with the main disadvantages of this method. The researcher may lose the ability to objectively assess the situation and become too accustomed to the role of an accomplice in events. Typically, the outcome of participant observation is a sociological essay rather than a rigorous scientific report.

There is also moral problem participant observation: how ethical is it to disguise yourself as an ordinary participant?

If observation is carried out outside a scientific institution, it is called field observation. There may also be laboratory observations, when people are invited for a conversation or a business game. Observations can be one-time, systematic.

Before starting observation, it is necessary to define the object, formulate problems, set research tasks, prepare tools, and ways to describe the results. Observation is an indispensable source of sociological information at the stage of general intelligence.

As an independent method, observation is the basis for studying rallies and demonstrations. Its more common use is as a complement to other sources of information. Thus, participant observation in combination with subsequent mass surveys makes it possible to supplement dry but representative material with more lively information, a kind of “pictures”.

Experiment in sociology - a method of obtaining information about an object as a result of the influence of certain controlled and adjustable factors on it. According to the specifics of the task at hand, they are distinguished:

1. Research experiment. In the course of this experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains new scientific information that has not yet been sufficiently confirmed or has not been proven at all.

2. Practical experiment - includes numerous processes of experimentation in the field of social relations. This refers to the processes of experimentation that occur in the course of, for example, improving the education and training system.

The division of experiments into scientific research and practical is conditional, since a practical experiment often allows one to obtain new information of a scientific nature, and a scientific experiment ends with practical recommendations in one or another area of ​​public life.

Document analysis. In sociology, a document is a specially created human object designed to transmit or store information.

The range of sociological documents reflecting various aspects of social life is so wide that any empirical sociological research must begin with an analysis of the information available on the problem of interest to the researcher.

According to the form of recording, documents are:

1. Written documents- these are archive materials, statistical reporting, scientific publications; press, personal documents (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, diaries, etc.).

2. Iconographic documents- these are works of fine art (paintings, engravings, sculptures), as well as films, videos and photographic documents.

3. Phonetic documents- these are disks, tape recordings, gramophone records. They are interesting as a reproduction of past events.

It has a number of other advantages compared to other methods:

1) Analysis of documents allows you to quickly obtain factual data about the enterprise as a whole and its workers and employees.

2) This information is objective. But we must not forget about the limitations associated with the quality of such information:

a) accounting and reporting information is not always reliable and needs to be monitored using survey observations;

b) some of this information becomes outdated;

c) the goals of creating documents most often do not coincide with the tasks that a sociologist solves in a failed study, therefore the information contained in documents must be processed and rethought by a sociologist;

d) the vast majority of data in departmental documentation does not contain information about the state of consciousness of workers. Therefore, document analysis is sufficient only in cases where factual information is sufficient to solve the problem.

Documentary sources provide unique and diverse information about social phenomena and processes. It is important to find methods that would allow the required information to be retrieved with sufficient reliability. These methods include a whole variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study. There are two main types of documentation analysis:

I. Traditional analysis- this is an interpretation of the content of a document, its interpretation. It is based on a mechanism for understanding text. Traditional analysis allows you to cover the deep, hidden aspects of the content of a document. Weak point This method is subjectivity.

Traditional analysis is an adaptation of the content of a document to a research problem, based on intuitive understanding, generalization of the content and logical justification of the conclusions drawn.

It is necessary to make an assessment of the quality of documents, which includes:

1. Clarification of the conditions, goals and reasons for creating the document.

In other words, the reliability factors of a documentary source are clarified in relation to the purposes of the study. Establishing the completeness and reliability of the source regarding the objectives of the study are the main parameters of its assessment before the start of the study.

II. Formalized analysis- quantitative method of document analysis (content analysis). The essence of this method comes down to finding such easily countable signs, features, properties of a document (for example, the frequency of use of certain terms), which would necessarily reflect certain essential aspects of the content. Then the content becomes measurable, accessible to precise computational operations. The results of the analysis become sufficiently objective.

The most significant limitation associated with the use traditional methods analysis of documents such as newspapers and similar sources is the possibility of subjective influences on the results of the analysis, that is, the influence of the researcher’s attitudes, his interests, and existing stereotypical ideas about the subject of analysis. This drawback is overcome by methods of formalized analysis, which are based on statistical accounting of various objective characteristics of the text. For example, the frequency of publications in a newspaper of materials on a certain topic, the number of lines allocated by the editors to individual topics, headings, authors, the frequency of mentions of problems, terms, names, geographical names, etc.

Content analysis is a method of studying messages created in various areas of social communication and recorded in the form of written text on paper or recordings on any other physical media.

The analysis is based on uniform standardized rules for searching, recording and calculating quantitative indicators of the studied characteristics of the text.

Its essence is to find and use for calculation such features of a document that would reflect certain essential aspects of its content.

It is advisable to use content analysis in the presence of large text arrays with a clear structure determined by the communicative intentions of the authors of the text.

Analysis of the results of sociological research

There are two fundamental approaches to analyzing sociological data; analysis of linear distribution and structural-typological analysis of the object.

It is in this sequence that these approaches, as a rule, are implemented in the analytical work of a sociologist.

Let us note that linear and structural-typological types of analysis are not alternative, but complementary ways of studying sociological data.

1. Linear distribution analysis

Within this approach, the sociologist works with an undivided array of data. The goal of this stage of analysis is to see common features and trends characteristic of the object being studied generally.

A common mistake when analyzing a linear distribution is retelling the obtained statistical data. Don't get carried away with phrases like " 15% of respondents agree with opinion A, and 20% agree with opinion B" - this is already evident from the tables.

It is necessary to analyze, comprehend the obtained figures, see in them some sociological patterns, trends, correlate the obtained data with the a priori hypotheses of the project, that is, implement meaningful interpretation of research results.

General notes on structural-typological analysis

Structural-typological analysis is aimed at identifying the structure of an object and revealing the specific characteristics of consciousness and behavior of its typical representatives.

When identifying groups in whose activities, views, verbal and real behavior you see the manifestation of various social trends, pay attention to both substantive and statistical criteria.

· Are the selected group sizes sufficient for a confident, informed analysis? What differences in the groups' responses would you interpret as significant?

· Do the groups you have identified overlap? Which part of the array was not included in the typological groupings? What does this mean?

The situation when a significant part of the array is outside the typological groupings may be a consequence of the following circumstances:

a) Firstly, this is often the result of a superficial, insufficiently thorough analysis - when the 1-2 most striking, in the student’s opinion, trends are selected, while others remain outside his field of vision.

b) Sometimes this is a consequence of excessive depth of analysis. In this case, the researcher formulates the criteria for selecting groups too strictly (5-6 criteria, combined by type of conjunction, in the logical connective “and”). At the same time, the most consistent supporters of a particular position are identified - the “core” of the trend. There are always few such people in the population.

Analysis of such “nuclei” will help you understand the essence, the main substantive connections of the identified trends. However, this analysis must be supplemented by a search for broader groupings representing supporters, “fellow travelers” - individuals who are less consistently drawn to the identified trends.

c) A situation where a significant part of the array does not lend itself to typological analysis even with soft selection criteria (a small number of indicators; a logical connection “or”) can finally speak of a special state of mass consciousness - amorphous, logically inconsistent, unstructured. This state of mass consciousness is typical for transitional, problematic, and crisis periods. social development when a significant part of society has not decided on its views and positions. During this period, mass consciousness represents a kind of “cauldron” in which characteristic tendencies and positions are just beginning to crystallize.

Carrying out a structural-typological analysis, a sociologist, as a rule, resorts to the methods of mathematical statistics. It should not be forgotten, however, that such an analysis can also be based on arbitrary parameters chosen at the discretion of the sociologist.

2. Conditional distribution “at the discretion of the sociologist”

Before “dissecting” the array using multivariate statistical analysis methods, typological groupings are identified independently. Such a choice can be made based on:

(2) Based on a linear distribution, which certainly reflects the structure of the object. A symptom of the structural heterogeneity of an object is a sharp polarization of opinions, so we pay attention to the issues in which it can be traced. Is there a logical connection between these questions, do they line up into a meaningful plot? If so, then what you most likely see is a reflection, a “shadow” of typological groupings that they cast on the plane of linear distribution.

Select 1-2-3 indicators from these polarized questions. It is quite possible that you were mistaken, and the questions between which you saw a logical connection actually indicate different types of respondents. This is also a very useful result; it enriches your initial ideas about the object.

3 ) Multivariate statistical analysis

During statistical analysis, certain statistical patterns and dependencies are revealed, which allow the sociologist to make certain generalizations and conclusions. To conduct statistical analysis, sociologists use a large number of different mathematical methods that allow them to fully and comprehensively analyze the collected information. In modern sociology, computers are actively used for this purpose, supplemented by mathematical and statistical processing programs.

If you are working with a dendrogram, provide a drawing of it, not forgetting to separate the branches according to the levels of correlations; give the working name of each branch. If using the factorial method, provide tables of correlation of individual parameters with the selected factors; in this case, it is advisable to rank the parameters according to factor loadings. Thus, ranking is a procedure for establishing the relative importance (preference) of the objects under study based on their ordering. If cluster analysis was carried out, provide tables of correlation of respondents into clusters based on factor values ​​(if cluster analysis was carried out based on the factor method)

If the sample is large in size, you can provide a fragment of such a table.

In any case, the preliminary, rough analytical work that has been done must be documented. This will allow us to assess how adequate and justified the meaningful conclusions are; see whether the source data allows for the possibility of alternative interpretation and construction of other explanatory

When resorting to methods of mathematical statistics when analyzing data, it is necessary to be aware of the formal boundaries of this group of methods.

First of all, one should not overestimate the heuristic capabilities of statistical and mathematical methods.

They are not capable of providing fundamentally new knowledge about an object - we can only talk about confirming or refuting the underlying hypotheses, or about their clarification and nuance. But - in order for this to happen - a thorough preliminary conceptual object analysis. Shifting content-analytical tasks to the stage of statistical data processing is futile and leads to vague or banal results ( “If you put in grain, there will be flour; if you put in dust, there will be dust.”).

Further. The result of statistical analysis is formal indicators that do not prove or disprove anything. Proof or refutation is a matter of meaningful interpretation, and it, as a rule, allows for a multivariate interpretation of the data.

Sociology at its core is a humanitarian science, and the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics, despite all its rigor and scientific impartiality, is not at all a guarantor or a prerequisite for “sociological scientificity.” Within the framework of sociological knowledge, this apparatus is only one of the tools, which is not always adequate to the tasks being solved.

It should also be remembered that correlations (at a statistically significant level) can only capture fairly strong, and therefore usually well-known, dependencies. New social trends, even if they are reflected to some extent in correlation coefficients, cannot, from a formal point of view, be justified with their help. Seeing in quantitatively poorly expressed indicators not statistical fluctuations, but symptoms of social change is a task of purely meaningful analysis, and it is based on the theoretical competence and intuition of the researcher, his sense of social reality and professional experience.

Forms for presenting research results

There are three main groups of forms for presenting the results of sociological research.

-Statistical forms

Direct, “raw” statistical processing data. These can be tables, graphs and even printouts. Such materials, as a rule, are accompanied by minimal commentary, but can also be presented in “bare” statistical form, without textual support. In this form, as a rule, the results of purely applied research of a marketing or political science nature, intended for a competent customer, are presented.

- Scientific forms

These include:

1. A report on the results of sociological research in all its varieties, namely:

1.1. A complete report documenting the substantive and methodological parts of the study. It has a clear structure.

1.2. A brief report that includes the most important results of the study and allows for a limited number of tables and statistical material (to the extent necessary to disclose and support the main conclusions)

1-3. A summary report that is not loaded with digital material and contains only clearly and concisely formulated research conclusions

2. Scientific publications

A scientific publication, in comparison with a report, is more conceptual, is of an author’s nature, and does not have a mandatory and unified structure of presentation.

-Literary forms

1 . Sociological essay

Genre on the borders of sociological science and literature. Typically, this style is used to describe the results of qualitative research.

2. Publication in the media

One of the most responsible and, today, the most discrediting forms of sociology.

The culture of sociological publishing involves the correct presentation of sociological information with the obligatory indication of the procedural and methodological characteristics of the study. The minimum required information includes the following:

· institution that carried out the study

· time of the field stage

· method of collecting information

sample size

· sample type

average error (range of statistical errors) of the sample

· In some cases, it is also desirable to provide a verbatim description of the questions raised in the study.

Style of sociological text

Professional work in the field of sociology requires a certain level of literary training. In particular, the sociologist must clearly understand the features of the three main stylistic types of sociological text:

Scientific style

Its main features:

1) Use of accepted scientific vocabulary

2) Validity of conclusions (conceptual and procedural)

3) Strictness, emotional neutrality of presentation

Journalistic style

Features:

3) Literary brightness, originality of style, stylistic originality

Customized style

1) Inadmissibility of special terminology

3) Clearly expressed practical orientation of the text

4) Rigor, clarity, simplicity and clarity of presentation

Data analysis and processing includes the following components: 1) Editing and coding of information. The main purpose of this step is to unify and formalize the information that was obtained during the research. 2) Creating variables. In some cases, the information collected on the basis of questionnaires directly answers the questions that need to be addressed in the study. Because the questions received the form of indicators through the process of operationalization. Now it is necessary to carry out the reverse procedure, that is, to translate the data into a form that would answer the research questions. 3) Statistical analysis. This step is key in the process of analyzing sociological data.

Bibliography

1. Devyatko I.F. Methods of sociological research. (2nd ed. - M.: University, 2002. - 295 p.)

2. V.A. Yadov. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. M., 1987.

3. Sociology: foundations of general theory. Ed. Osipova G.V., - M.: "Aspect-press", - 1996

4. Sociology: Textbook. manual for university students / A.N. Elsukov, E.N. Babosov, A.N. Danilov.-4th edition, stereotype. - Mn.: "Tetra-Systems", 2003.

During the practical lesson, each student must complete a sociological study in one of the areas. The direction of research is selected by the list number in the educational journal. The topic can be formulated as it sounds or in a more narrow sense. For example: “Life values ​​of young people” is a broader topic, “Life values ​​of students” is a narrower topic of research. The research topic can be formulated differently, since the proposed topics are only the direction of the research. Research is conducted either on a sample of students or on other samples of young people. The sample size is more than one hundred people. The result of sociological research, as an independent work of the student, must be formatted according to the model presented in the practical lesson.

Topics: “Attitudes of students and youth to various aspects of modern life”

Deviant behavior of young people.

Life values ​​of young people.

Youth subculture.

The attitude of young people towards poor people.

The attitude of young people towards rich people.

Young people's attitude towards money.

The attitude of young people towards the intelligentsia.

Young people's attitude towards career growth.

Young people's attitude to fashion.

Young people's attitude to youth slang.

The attitude of young people to public opinion about youth.

The attitude of young people to patriotism.

The attitude of young people towards prestigious parties.

Young people's attitude to the problem of loneliness.

Young people's attitude towards rock music.

Young people's attitude towards the media.

Young people's attitude to creativity.

Young people's attitude towards work.

Attitude of students (youth) to social work.

Students' attitude towards additional paid education (parallel education).

Students' attitudes towards short-term paid training courses.

Students' attitudes towards research work.

Attitudes of students towards unsuccessful students in studies and in life.

Students' attitudes toward academic excellence.

Students' attitudes towards entrepreneurship.

Students' attitude towards learning.

Students' attitudes towards family and marriage.

Students' attitudes towards school.

Religiosity of youth.

Extremism among youth.

Topics: “Problems of the modern family”

Kinship family structure.

Homogeneity of the social composition of the family.

Types of leading needs in the family.

The nature of leisure activities of family members.

The nature of the distribution of responsibilities.

Types of headship in the family.

Family functions.

Attitude to culture and traditions.

Attitude of family members to God.

Psychological features of premarital relationships.

Attitude towards civil marriage.

Young people's ideas about family and marriage.

Formation of attitudes towards marriage and family.

Motives for choosing a marriage partner.

Organization of family life, family economy.

Family roles, their distribution.

Interaction of young spouses with parental families.

Preparing the family for the birth of their first child.

Family quarrels and marital conflicts.

Marital satisfaction and conditions for maintaining marriage.

Causes adultery.

Social and psychological characteristics of divorces.

Reasons and motives for divorce.

Types of family education.

Roles of the child in the family.

Parental positions and motives for family education.

Problems of parent-child relationships.

The problem of fathers and children".

Relationships in the “Family – State” system.

Patriotic education in the family.

V. control test

1. Formation and development of sociology as a science

What is the subject of sociology?

Define the concept “social”

When did the birth of sociology as a science occur?

Indicate the main (primary social subjects).

What is metasociology?

Indicate the branches of sociology.

2. Classical sociology

What system did Herbert Spencer compare society to?

Who is the founder of “understanding sociology”?

3. Sociological schools of the 20th century

4. Sociology in Russia

Indicate the founder of the theory of “cultural-historical types”.

What is the state of modern Russia from the perspective of a civilizational approach?

What is the path towards the formation of civil society in Russia?

5. The main components of social life. Society

Give a definition of the concept “civil society”.

What type of relations prevails in civil society.

What is the relationship between civil society and the state?

6. Personality

Give a definition of the concept “socialization”.

What is the role of the individual in civil society?

7. Social structure and social stratification

What is the social structure of society?

What is social mobility?

What is vertical mobility?

8. Social communities and groups

What is social status?

What is a quasigroup?

Which thinker was the first to introduce the concept of class struggle?

9. Social deviations and deviation

Give a description of deviant behavior.

What is social control?

10. The problem of globalism

What does the term “globalization” mean?

Indicate the main theorists of the problem of global studies.

5.2 Sample questions for the test in the course “Sociology”

Indicate the founder of the theory of “cultural-historical types”:

The birth of sociology is associated with the name of which scientist?

What is the object of sociology?

VI. Sample questions for testing

Subject and object of knowledge of sociology. The concept of social.

Sociology and other social sciences.

The structure of sociology.

Functions of sociology.

Social conditions and theoretical prerequisites for the emergence of sociology.

Elements of sociological knowledge in ancient social philosophy.

Social views of Plato.

Issues of power in Cicero's concept of the state.

The state in the religious concept of A. Blessed and F. Aquinas.

Sociological views of N. Machiavelli.

Sociological views of I. Kant.

State and society in G. F. Hegel.

Sociological views of G. Spencer.

Founder of sociology O. Comte.

Classic type of scientific sociology. The doctrine of the method of E. Durkheim.

Non-traditional type of science. “Understanding Sociology” by G. Simmel and M. Weber.

Basic principles of the materialist doctrine of society by K. Marx and F. Engels.

Psychological direction in psychology.

The main stages and directions of development of sociology in the USA.

Development of sociological thought in Russia.

Society as complete system. Systematic approach to social life.

The concept of society in functionalism and individualism.

Culture as an object of social cognition.

Types and interaction of cultures.

Subculture, ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.

Interaction of culture and economy.

Social functions of culture.

Typology of societies.

The concepts of “social change”, “social development”, “social progress”, “modernization”.

The concept of evolutionary and revolutionary development of society.

Theory of cultural-historical types.

Globalization of social and cultural processes in modern world.

The concept of social community and its varieties. Character traits mass communities.

Social groups are the main form of social communities. Types of social groups.

Ethnic communities. The main features and stages of the formation of the Russian nation.

The concept of personality. Personality as a subject of social relations.

The relationship between the individual and society.

Role theories of personality. Social status and social role.

Personality formation in the process of socialization.

Deviant personality behavior.

The concept of social structure and social stratification of society. Reasons for social stratification.

Marxist doctrine of classes as the main element of the social structure of society.

Western sociological theories of social stratification: foundations of the school and profile of social stratification.

Social mobility. Marginalization of individuals and groups.

Social stratification and social mobility in the USSR and modern Russian society.

Causes, functions and subjects of social conflicts.

Dynamics of social conflicts.

Mass actions. Types and forms of social conflicts in modern Russia.

The concept of “social institution”. Institutionalization of public life.

Types and functions of social institutions.

Family as the most important social institution.

Patterns of formation of religion as a social institution.

The main stages in the formation of the Christian church as a social organization.

Main features of social organization.

Formal and informal organizations.

Bureaucracy as a social phenomenon.

Marxist doctrine of the state as a social organization of a class-antagonistic society.

State and civil society.

Structure of production organizations.

Values ​​of manufacturing organizations.

The role of informal groups in the activities of organizations.

The concept of management, forms of management activity.

Management style of a production organization.

Methods for assessing the performance of managers.

Youth as a socio-demographic group.

Innovation process: stages, strategies and problems.

Types of sociological research.

Theoretical preparation of the research program.

Methods for collecting social information. Sampling, document analysis, observation, survey: questioning, interviewing.

Methods of analyzing and interpreting data, obtaining empirically based generalizations, conclusions and recommendations.

VII. Personalities

Augustine the Blessed, (354–430)

Christian theologian and church leader. Founder of Christian philosophy of history. The “Earthly City” – the state – was contrasted with the mystically understood “City of God” – the church. Developed the doctrine of grace and predestination. The autobiographical “Confession”, depicting the formation of personality, is distinguished by the depth of psychological analysis.

Althusser, Louis, (b. 1918)

French Marxist philosopher. Main works on the history of philosophy, theory of knowledge, dialectics and historical materialism. Althusser's views are close to the ideas of structuralism.

Aristotle, (384–322 BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. He believed that man is a social being. The best forms of state are monarchy, aristocracy, “polity” (moderate democracy), the worst are tyranny, oligarchy, ochlocracy.

Aron, Raymond, (1905–1983)

French sociologist, philosopher and publicist, professor at the Sorbonne. One of the creators of the theory of a unified industrial society.

Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich, (1814–1876)

Russian revolutionary, one of the founders and theorists of anarchism. The beginning of civilization is associated with the knowledge of the natural laws of nature, in accordance with which a person carries out labor activities. The goal and criterion of progress was considered as a constant increase in personal freedom, therefore any actions that clear the way for this freedom are progressive.

Bell, Daniel, (b. 1919)

American sociologist, specialist in the history of social thought, political trends and social forecasting. The concept of post-industrial society he developed made him one of the leading representatives of social forecasting in the West. According to this concept, the scientific and technological revolution makes the social revolution unnecessary. D. Bell is one of the most prominent representatives of American neoconservatism.

Burgess, Ernest, (1886–1966)

Park's closest scientific colleague, who together with him developed the ecological concept of social development. The main areas of his scientific interests were problems of urbanization, social pathologies in the urban environment, socialization of the individual, family and community. His technique of “concentric zones” is widely known, with the help of which he revealed the social heterogeneity of space big city.

Berdyaev, Nikolai Alexandrovich, (1874-1948)

His work was associated with the birth of legal Marxism, with the “change of milestones” in the consciousness of the Russian intelligentsia, with the bright pages of Russian social thought in conditions of emigration.

Blau Peter Michael, (b. 1918)

American sociologist, professor of sociology. Along with J.C. Homans, B is considered one of the creators of the theory of social exchange. Synthesizing the ideas of M. Weber with a structural-functional approach, he makes an attempt to determine the sources of structural changes in formal organizations and trends in the development of bureaucratic organizations in modern society.

Bloomer, Herbert, (1910– 987)

Representative of the psychological direction of the fourth generation of the Chicago sociological school. Bloomer continued the tradition. W. Thomas, R. Park, E. Hughes. It is concentrated on the study of the "I", the ego. It is he who coins the term “symbolic interactionism.”

Weber, Max, (1864–1920)

German sociologist, social philosopher and historian, founder of understanding sociology and the theory of social action. M. Weber developed sociology mainly as a sociology of people’s economic behavior, while his behavior invariably acted as a model of rational behavior, according to the degree of deviation from which he distinguished other types of behavior - value-rational action, affective and traditional action. Developed the concept of rational bureaucracy.

Garfinkel, Harold, (b. 1917)

American sociologist, professor, representative of ethnomethodology. The term “ethnomethodology” is constructed by analogy with the ethnographic term “ethnoscience” (rudimentary knowledge in primitive societies). Garfinkel's ethnomethodology is a modification of the phenomenological sociology of A. Schutz. But, in contrast to Schutz’s speculative “social epistemology,” Garfinkel focuses on empirical studies of single (“unique”) acts of social interaction identified with speech communication.

Gastev Al. Cap., (1882–1941)

Russian Soviet poet and scientist. Organizer of the Central Institute of Labor (1920). Works on rational organization and work culture.

Hegel, Georg, (1770–1831)

German philosopher. One of the central concepts of his theory of dialectics are: 1. “Subjective spirit” (mental activity of the individual), 2. “Objective spirit” (law, morality and “morality” - family, civil society, state), 3. “Absolute spirit” (art, religion, philosophy as forms of self-consciousness of the spirit).

Giddens, Anthony, (b. 1938)

English sociologist. In Capitalism and Modern Social Theory, he analyzes the class structure of developed industrial societies. He put forward the theory of structuration. He paid great attention to the characteristics of the social institutions of the modern era, the role of the national state as a bearer of administrative power with control over the means of armed violence. He studied various aspects of social life during the “late modern” period. E. Giddens considers the study of globalization processes in the modern world to be one of the main directions in the development of sociology.

Hobbes, Thomas, (1588–1679)

English philosopher, creator of the first complete system of mechanistic materialism. Hobbes likened the state to the mythical biblical monster Leviathan, the result of an agreement between people that put an end to the natural state of “war of all against all.”

Gobineau, Joseph, (1816–1882)

French sociologist and writer, one of the founders of racism and the racial-anthropological school in sociology.

Gouldner, Alvin, (1920–1980)

American sociologist, representative of alternative sociology. He criticized the existing capitalist system and proposed the concept of reflexive sociology, in which the main task of a sociologist is to identify the causes of the crisis of Western society and search for ways to overcome it using “critical reflection.” A. Gouldner saw the deepest reasons for the crisis of Western society in the depersonalization of man, the destruction of his integrity and universally valid view of the world, and the antinomically contradictory relationship between knowledge and power. He argued that knowledge endowed with a critical element is capable of fulfilling the role of a direct transformative means of transforming social existence.

Gumplowicz, Ludwig, (1894–1965)

Polish-Austrian sociologist and lawyer, representative of social Darwinism. He considered social groups to be the subject of sociology, and the continuous and merciless struggle between them to be the main factor in social life. The basis of social processes in general, according to L. Gumplowicz, is in a person’s desire to satisfy material needs.

Danilevsky, Nikolai Yakovlevich, (1822–1885)

Russian sociologist, ethnographer. Creator of the first anti-evolutionist model of social progress in the history of sociology. The basis of Danilevsky’s sociological doctrine was the idea of ​​isolated, local “cultural-historical types” (civilizations). Like biological species, they go through naturally predetermined stages of maturity, decrepitness and inevitable death.

Dahrendorf, Ralf Gustav, (b. 1929)

German-English sociologist. Under the influence of positivism, R. Dahrendorf understands sociology as “an experimental science that is concerned with opening up the social world to our understanding with the help of propositions, regarding the correctness or falsity of which systematic observations can give an obligatory decision.” Society, according to R. Dahrendorf, is in a state of permanent conflict. These conflicts can become even more acute form, the more difficult social mobility is, that is, the advancement of people to status positions other than those they inherited. This results in a liberal program for a highly mobile society that recognizes and regulates conflicts. A society where there is no uneven distribution of normative powers would, according to D., be frozen and non-developing.

Durkheim, Emile, (1858–1917)

French positivist sociologist, one of the founders of modern sociological theory. He is one of the founders of structural-functional analysis along with M. Weber and V. Pareto. The first professor of sociology in France. E. Durkheim called the subject of sociology social facts that cannot exist without people, but also do not exist in specific individuals. Social facts, which are collective ideas and actions, need to be studied “as things,” that is, as objects of study of any sciences. The nature and character of social connection underlie mechanical and organic solidarity. He developed the concepts of collective consciousness, anomie. This situation can result from any sudden change in social structure (such as sudden economic booms or busts).

Zaslavskaya Tatyana Ivanovna, (b. 1927)

Soviet economist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1981). Main works on forms of remuneration on collective farms, socio-economic problems of labor resources, migration of the rural population.

Simmel, Georg, (1858–1918)

German philosopher, cultural scientist and sociologist, representative of the “philosophy of life”. He was the founder of the so-called formal sociology. The subject of sociology was considered forms of social interaction between people that remain unchanged despite all changes in a particular historical content. In line with this approach, G. Simmel analyzed social differentiation, social forms (agreement, conflict, competition, authority, subordination, rank, etc.), relationships that arise in small groups. The “Philosophy of Money” contains a socio-psychological analysis of the role of money in the development of impersonal relationships between people as a prerequisite for the development of personality and individual freedom.

Znaniecki, Florian Witold (1882–1958)

Polish-American sociologist. In his work “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America” he was the first to use the concepts of “personal attitudes”, values, as well as methods for studying personal documents (letters, diaries, autobiographies). One of the founders of the theory of social action. Society is a cultural system consisting of social, economic, technological and other subsystems and a studied set of cultural sciences. Znaniecki divided the social systems studied by sociology into four subsystems: actions, relationships, individuals and groups.

Kant, Immanuel, (1724–1804)

German philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy. In his opinion, the condition of knowledge is generally valid a priori forms that organize the chaos of sensations. The ideas of God, freedom, immortality, theoretically unprovable, are, however, postulates of “practical reason”, a necessary prerequisite for morality.

Keynes, John, (1883–1946)

English economist and publicist, founder of Keynesianism. The basic principles of this theory were formulated under the influence of the economic crisis of 1929-1933 and are aimed at regulating the capitalist economy to ensure the uninterrupted process of social production. The main goals of Keynesianism are to maintain “efficient” demand and “full” employment.

English political scientist. One of the authors of the concept of “socialist civil society”. He proposed a broader idea of ​​civil society, which is not limited to the problem of the relationship between the leading classes within the same formation. He addresses more general civilizational problems. These include the problem of democratization of society, the relationship between freedom and the subordination of the individual to society, the formation of a new type of freedom - controlled and ordered on the basis of political reason.

Kingsley, Charles, (1819–1875)

English writer and publicist. Representative of "Christian socialism".

Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich, (1841–1911)

Russian historian. Scientific works on the history of serfdom, estates, finance, historiography.

Kovalevsky Maxim Maksimovich, (1851–1916)

Russian historian, lawyer, evolutionist sociologist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1914). He acted as a follower of the comparative historical method and positivism. The central place in his work was occupied by the idea of ​​social progress, the essence of which he saw in the growth of solidarity of social groups, classes and peoples. M. M. Kovalevsky introduced a pluralistic concept into sociology. He was one of the first to raise the question of whether it is unacceptable to look for a single factor as the root cause of social development. The fundamental contribution of M. M. Kovalevsky to the development of sociology was his concept of social reconciliation, by which he understood the expansion of human solidarity. According to this concept, the level of social development of a society, ethnic group, any group, or civilization depends on how much conflicts have been eradicated from the life of this ethnic group or social group. The normal development of society, in his opinion, follows the path of expanding the boundaries of this peace. First it occurs at the family level. It is here that more human, warmer relationships are first established. Then it spreads to the community, in particular to the rural community, and subsequently to a wider ethnic group. After his death in 1916, a Russian society of sociologists was created, named after him.

Coser, Lewis, (b. 1913)

American sociologist. One of the founders of the functionalist modification of the theory of social conflict. Unlike R. Dahrendorf, he interprets social conflict not so much as a destructive factor, but as an impulse for social development and even social cohesion (groups in the process of intergroup conflict). Criticizing the “equilibrium” concept inherent in the evolutionary functionalism of T. Parsons, L. Coser proceeds from the same classical postulates as the latter (they were put forward by E. Durkheim, G. Simmel, etc.). In accordance with these postulates, the process of social differentiation and the growth of independence of individuals and structures lead to a deepening of social conflict, but at the same time the flexibility of social institutions and their ability to cope with the consequences of the conflict increase. Thus, L. Coser brings the theory of conflict closer to the theory of evolutionary functionalism.

Korkunov, Nikolai Mikhailovich, (1853-1904)

Fundamentally distinguished between law and decree. Methodologically, he was an opponent of voluntarism and believed that the basis of law is not the will, but the interest of the person entitled. According to Korkunov, law delineates interests, and the state is not the bearer of rights, but a legal relationship that exists between all individuals living in the same territory, and the subject of these relations is government, that is, such a force that arises in the psyche of subjects, in their awareness of their dependence.

Korkunov himself called his methodological positions subjectivist realism, trying to take an independent position in the debate between positivism and idealism. He applied these principles quite successfully in his highly original theory of state and law, but not entirely consistently in the definite essence of law.

Comte, Auguste, (1798–1857)

French philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders of positivism and sociology. He believed that with the help of science it was possible to understand the hidden laws that govern all societies. He sought to develop a rational approach to the study of society, the basis of which would be observation and experiment. He viewed society as an organic integrity and the individual as an abstract one. The basis of social life is the selfishness of individuals, which is curbed by the state, which acts as an organ of social solidarity. Divided sociology into “social statics” and “social dynamics”. The basis of positivist sociology is “order and progress.” O. Comte considered the main elements of society to be the family, cooperation based on specialization, and the state. He considered progress as the law of social evolution.

Kropotkin, Pyotr Alekseevich, (1842–1921)

The creator of the social doctrine of anarchism, a major geographer who studied Siberia and Manchuria, who substantiated the theory of glaciation of Eurasia. P. A. Kropotkin is considered the founder of the concept of anarchist communism. For him, anarchy is both a methodological and socio-moral key to understanding the essence of the development of natural and social existence, since he saw in the state and its institutions the main cause of social oppression, exploitation and injustice.

In his concept, Kropotkin not only denied the state, but also developed constructive principles for creating a stateless social order. The methodological basis of these constructions is “synthetic theory”, replacing Hegelian dialectics with a “strictly scientific inductive method” based on evolutionism and anarchism. His ideal of anarchist communism is closely connected with the law of mutual assistance, which will allow the creation of a federation of free industrial communities. His ideas received significant distribution and development in Western Europe, especially in Spain, as well as in Latin America, India, and China.

Cooley, Charles Horton, (1864–1929)

American sociologist, direct predecessor of symbolic interactionism. Researched mainly small groups and personality formation; introduced a distinction between primary groups (family, neighborhood, etc.), considering them the main units of society, and secondary social institutions (classes, nations, parties). The subject of sociology, according to Cooley, is social facts, which he defined as “representations of ideas.”

Lavrov, Pyotr Lavrovich, (1823–1900)

Russian philosopher, sociologist, publicist, one of the ideologists of revolutionary populism. He is one of the major sociologists of the first stage of the formation of sociology in Russia. Supporter of the subjective method in sociology. The direction of social thought he developed was called subjective sociology. Sociology, according to Lavrov, is closely connected with history. A sociologist must practice the subjective method, that is, be able to take the place of suffering members of society. The understanding of society is embodied in the theory of progress. P. L. Lavrov believed that the leading force, “the organ of progress is the individual, characterized by critical consciousness, the desire to change frozen social forms.” The motives for human activity are custom, affects, interests and beliefs. With the emergence of critical individuals, the historical life of mankind begins.

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870–1924)

Politician, founder of the Soviet state. V.I. Lenin studied the development of capitalism in Russia, giving a justification for imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. Lenin's doctrine of imperialism testified to the growing globalization of society. Lenin proposed not to contain this globalization, but to take control of it and make it work for Marxist purposes. Thus, Lenin proposed his project of Marxist globalization.

He formulated the concept of the state, which was important for the development of Soviet society in the 20th century. V.I. Lenin proves with reference to Marx and Engels that the state is not a means of mutually coordinating the interests of various social forces, but a product of the irreconcilability of class contradictions and an organ of suppression; a force standing above society and increasingly alienating itself from it. Hence the conclusion: “The proletariat needs... a state... structured so that it immediately begins to wither away.”

Leontyev, Konstantin Nikolaevich, (1831–1891)

He was a man of great spiritual culture. He advocated for the spiritual revival of certain aspects of Byzantine life in Russian culture. His ideals were monarchy and Orthodoxy. He represented the state as courageous, strict, but kind towards its subjects. These works describe how it would be desirable to organize the life of Russia, what are the most acceptable forms of social life in the country. Leontyev called himself a principled, ideological conservative, affirming the following main values: real-mystical, strictly ecclesiastical and monastic Christianity of the Byzantine and partly Roman type; strong and concentrated statehood; the beauty of life in original national forms.

He believed that humanity and its individual parts go through three states: initial simplicity (like an organism in the womb and infancy); positive dismemberment (developed flowering age) and mixing simplification and equation, or secondary simplicity (decrepancy, death and decay). For Europe, the first stage is the migration of peoples, the second is the Middle Ages and the beginning of new ones, the third is the century of Enlightenment and the Great French Revolution.

K. N. Leontiev formulated his general ideal as follows: the state should be colorful, complex, strong, class-based and flexible with caution, generally harsh, sometimes to the point of cruelty; the church must be more independent than the current one, the hierarchy must be bolder, more powerful, more focused; life should be poetic, diverse in national unity, isolated from the West; laws and principles of government must be stricter; people should try to be personally kinder - one will balance the other; science must develop in a spirit of deep contempt for its own benefit.

Lazarsfeld, Paul (Paul) Felix, (1901–1976)

Austrian-American sociologist who developed the problems of the methodology of social sciences and the application of mathematical methods in social cognition. Lazarsfeld’s main criterion for the truth of scientific knowledge is the principle of verification (evidence, certification of authenticity). He was the first to introduce a number of new methods into the methodology of sociological research: the panel method, which he first used when processing the results of the 1940 election campaign in the United States; latent structural analysis. Outstanding organizer of the Columbia School, which gave it global significance.

Le Bon, Gustave, (1841–1931)

French sociologist, social psychologist and anthropologist, doctor of medicine, author of works on theoretical and experimental natural science. He defended the principle of racial determinism, proved the inequality of different races and the leading role of race in the development of civilization. He substantiated the advantages of a social structure based on a hereditary aristocratic form of government and corresponding privileges. He sharply criticized the ideas of social equality, democracy, and socialism. All achievements of civilization, according to G. Le Bon, are the result of the activities of the aristocratic elite. He associated the decline of civilization with the advent of the era of the masses, when everything would be decided by the crowd, initiated by individual leaders. He divided the crowd into heterogeneous (street gatherings) and homogeneous (sects, classes). He influenced the development of theories of mass society and mass culture, stimulated interest in the study of mass communities and the mechanisms of mass behavior.

Lilienfeld-Toal, Pavel Fedorovich, (1829–1903)

He is one of the first Russian sociologists widely recognized by the world community. In 1897, at the third International Institute of Sociology, he was elected president of this professional international organization. In terms of content, his sociological concept belongs to social evolutionism. Following R. Virchow, applying his cell theory to the analysis of society, P. F. Lilienfeld believed that social disease always begins with the degeneration of individual disabled cells, and not with the whole organism at once. Then, through indirect and direct reflexes, the painful phenomenon is transmitted to the entire organism, and this process ends with the formation of social pathology.

Luhmann, Nicholas (b. 1927)

German sociologist, the largest theorist of neofunctionalism and system theory in sociology, legal theorist. The subject of sociological science is the study of social systems. The starting point of his systems approach is the distinction between the system and the external environment. The elements of a social system are communications between individuals. The evolution of society is associated with the strengthening of its structural differentiation.

Machiavelli, Niccolo, (1469–1527)

Outstanding thinker of the Renaissance, founder of the new political science. Along with fate, Machiavelli considered the second driving basis of politics and all history to be a kind of personal energy, which manifests itself as the strength, valor, and enterprise of the individual himself.

Malinowski, Bronislaw, (1884–1942)

He was one of the founders of modern cultural anthropology; his name is associated primarily with the functional analysis of primitive cultures. Malinowski applied a functional approach to human society and defined culture as an instrumental apparatus with the help of which a person can cope with specific problems of the world around him.

Mannheim, Karl, (1893–1947)

German philosopher and sociologist. The creator of the sociology of knowledge, which considers knowledge as a matter not of thinking, but of experience, which is the result of the joint activities of people in society. He argued that only the creative intelligentsia, standing outside of classes, is capable of true social knowledge, with whom Mannheim pinned his hopes for preserving democracy in the face of the threat of fascism.

Marx, Karl, (1818–1883)

Social thinker, philosopher, economist. The main thing in the teachings of K. Marx is the idea of ​​a materialist understanding of history. For the first time in the history of sociological thought, this idea made it possible to establish, by highlighting economic relations as the structure of society, objective criteria for the significance of social facts. With creation social formations, developed by K. Marx, it became possible to consider each stage of social development in its real integrity as a special social organism. Social determinism of K. Marx is a scientific theory that explains the processes of interaction between society and the individual. Revealing important role economic relations, K. Marx does not reduce the entirety of social life to them. He lists the main sociological characteristics of society as: 1). Dismemberment and structure of society as a whole; 2). Economic structure as a basis for groups and types of superstructural phenomena; 3). Variability of systems and structures of society.

Representatives of such modern trends in sociology as symbolic interactionism, sociology of conflict, theory of social exchange, phenomenological sociology, neofunctionalism and others turn to the creative heritage of K. Marx.

Maslow, Abraham, (1908–1970)

American psychologist, one of the leaders of humanistic psychology. He formulated a hierarchical theory of needs, considering as fundamental those needs whose dissatisfaction causes illness. They can be physiological and psychological. Psychological needs are not as obvious as physiological needs. He examined human nature, dividing it into lower and higher. The lower part will include the instincts of man, which he has in common with animals, and the higher part will be what distinguishes man from the animal - his rationality. Although A. Maslow’s theory of needs was widely criticized, due to its universal explanatory capabilities, it served as the initial basis for many modern models of work motivation and has found application in a number of organizational innovations.

Merton, Robert, (1910–2002)

He made a significant contribution to the development of structural functionalism. For the first time he introduced the concept of dysfunction into sociology, distinguished between obvious and latent (hidden) social functions. He developed the idea of ​​so-called middle-level theories, which should connect empirical research and the general theory of sociology. An example of Merton's sociological analysis is his theory of anomie (a concept borrowed from E. Durkheim). Anomie, according to Merton, is a special moral and psychological state of individual and social consciousness, which is characterized by the decomposition of the system of moral values ​​and a vacuum of ideals. Merton considers the cause of anomie to be the contradiction between the “norms-goals” of culture (the desire for wealth, power, success, which acts as attitudes and motives of the individual) and existing institutions, sanctioned means of achieving these goals. This contradiction, R. Merton believes, underlies crime (rebellion against the laws and rules created by institutions that constrain it), apathy and disappointment in life (loss of life goals). R. Merton views this contradiction as a general conflict typical of an industrial society. He owns empirical studies of mass media in the United States (radio, cinema, television, press), containing criticism of the latter, as well as works on the sociology of knowledge and the sociology of science.

Mechnikov, Lev Ilyich, (1838–1888)

Russian geographer, sociologist, public figure. The largest representative of the geographical direction in sociology. By geographic environment, L.I. Mechnikov did not understand nature in general, but only that part of nature that is involved in the labor process and changes under its influence. He identified the hydrological factor - seas, rivers, oceans - as the main engine of civilization. Accordingly, three eras, or civilizations, were distinguished in world history: river, sea and oceanic, or world.

Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931)

Pioneer of American sociology and social psychology, founder of symbolic interactionism, a prominent representative of pragmatism and naturalism. He considered social reality as a set of social situations, and thinking as a tool for adapting to them. Revealed the role of social interactions in the process of forming the “I”. In the process of socialization, the individual masters the meanings of symbols and, with their help, learns to consciously direct his actions, “weaving” them into a broader “social act.”

Mill, John Stewart, (1806–1873)

English philosopher, economist. The most important feature of D. Mill's sociology is empiricism, based on the recognition of the inductive logic he developed as the only possible methodology of the social sciences, allowing one to generalize observed facts in general rules and laws that do not, however, reflect the true essence of phenomena, inaccessible to knowledge, that is, knowledge obtained even on the basis of “true” induction is always hypothetical.

D. Mill developed various schemes for logical proof of the presence or absence of cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena, which are used to this day in social experiments based on the principle of comparing two or more groups.

Mikhailovsky Nikolai Konstantinovich, (1842–1904)

Russian sociologist, publicist, critic, populist theorist, creator of subjective psychology, which is based on the thesis that truth exists only relative to man. Introduced the concept of a “normal subject”, expressing generally accepted social norms. He is one of the major sociologists of the first stage of the formation of sociology in Russia.

Michels, Robert, (1876–1936)

One of the representatives of political sociology. He put forward the idea of ​​the inevitability of the oligarchic degeneration of all democratic systems, parties and organizations (“the iron law of oligarchy”). This leads, according to R. Michels, to the consolidation of posts, the actual irremovability of leaders, the emergence and consolidation of privileges, the growth of unrepresentativeness of the party leadership, and its aspirations. To the perpetuation of their own position and privileges: from “charismatic” party leaders turn into simple bureaucrats, from revolutionaries into conservatives who care only about their own interests, and not about the interests of the masses.

Mosca, Gayatano, (1858–1941)

Italian political scientist and sociologist; one of the founders of the modern concept of the elite. G. Mosca developed the idea of ​​the necessity and eternity of dividing any society, regardless of the forms of the state, social groups and “political formulas” into two classes: the “political class,” that is, the ruling elite, and the unorganized majority, the managed class. Exploring the anatomy and dynamics of elites, Mosca comes to the conclusion that without their renewal, social stability, which is the basis of society, is impossible.

Mauss, Marcel, (1872–1950)

French ethnographer and sociologist. Supporter of Durkheim's theory. M. Moss implicitly revised some of its provisions. He actually abandons Durkheim's strident anti-psychologism, striving for cooperation between sociology and psychology. Unlike Durkheim, who views man as a dual being, embodying both individual and the social reality that dominates it, M. Mauss formulates the concept of a “total” (integral) man in the unity of his biological, psychological and social traits.

Mayo, Elton, (1880–1949)

American sociologist and psychologist. One of the founders of American industrial sociology, he put forward the doctrine of “human relations” as a path to establishing “industrial peace.”

Ogborn, W, (1886–1959)

Represents the third generation of the Chicago School of Sociology. He was head of the sociology department at the University of Chicago. In his theory of social change, W. Ogborn holds the idea that material culture develops in general relatively faster than intangible or adaptive culture. He explained the reasons for this by the small number of inventions in an adaptive culture, the presence of serious obstacles to adaptive changes, and significant resistance to adaptation, which are a consequence of the assessments and orientations of the group - the subject of social actions. In general, this theory laid the foundation for the formation of the concept of technological determinism in sociology.

Pareto, Vilfredo (1848–1923)

Italian economist and sociologist, representative mathematics school in political economy, one of the founders of functionalism. I tried to mathematically substantiate the concept of the interdependence of all economic factors, including price. Formulated the law of income distribution (the so-called Pareto law). He put forward the concept of “circulation of elites,” according to which the basis of social processes is the creative force and struggle of elites for power.

Park, Robert Ezra, (1864–1944)

Unlike the organizer of the Chicago sociological school, A. Small, he is considered its ideological creator. He is considered one of the founders of the theory of social ecology of the big city.

Parsons, Talcott (1902–1979)

American sociologist – theorist, who during his lifetime became a classic of American and world sociology. One of the founders of theoretical sociology and social anthropology of the twentieth century. He developed the so-called “sociology of action”, according to which an individual’s behavior is accompanied by the introduction of “meanings” accepted within a particular group. He tried to build a general sociological theory that would embrace human reality in all its diversity. Sociology studies a specific aspect of a social system—actions organized around relationships between two or more individuals. Combined analysis of the objective and subjective aspects of social life phenomena.

Petrazhitsky, Lev Iosifovich, (1867–1931)

The largest lawyer and sociologist of law. One of the main creators of the psychological school of law, according to which law is a phenomenon not so much of the external world as of the mental world of people.

Pisarev, Dmitry Ivanovich, (1840–1868)

He laid the foundation for that part of social analysis as sociological journalism, which was discussed passionately and with interest, with extraordinary public resonance, mainly on the pages of magazines and newspapers, which devoted a very prominent place to sociological publications.

Plekhanov, Georgy Valentinovich (1856–1918)

The largest Russian theorist and propagandist of Marxism, a prominent figure in the Russian and international labor and socialist movements. Of greatest interest to sociology are the conclusions of G. V. Plekhanov regarding the role of the masses and individuals in history and the nature of the development of the social revolution.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, (1712–1778)

French philosopher, writer. Rousseau criticized contemporary society, using as a scale for comparison, firstly, the “natural state” of pre-social humanity, and secondly, an ideal model of a possible social order.

Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy (1760–1825)

French thinker, sociologist, utopian socialist. Explaining the development of society, ultimately, by a change in the dominant philosophical, religious and scientific ideas in it, Saint-Simon believed that “industry” (by which he understood all types of economic activity of people) and the corresponding forms of ownership and ownership are of decisive importance in history. classes.

Skinner, Burres Frederick, (b. 1904)

American psychologist, leading representative of neobehaviorism in sociology. Skinner's social behaviorism proceeds mainly from the identification of the mechanisms of collective behavior of animals and people as “operant” behavior, that is, presupposing mutual reinforcement in the process of communication as a regulatory factor. Skinner is guided by the ideas of operant behaviorism both when analyzing society and its institutions, and when constructing his utopian models of social order.

Smelser, Neil, (b. 1930)

American sociologist, representative of evolutionary functionalism, student and follower of T. Parsons. He studied the socio-psychological aspects of collective behavior, the impact of various social institutions - political, legal, religious and others on the economic life of society. Special attention focuses on the problem of social inequality. Defining the category of social, Smelser emphasizes that we should not forget about its substantive element, which are the concepts of equality, justice and freedom.

Small, Albion, (1854–1926)

Founder and world's first dean of the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago, founder of the Chicago School of Sociology, which exists and enjoys a high professional reputation today. He believed that social life is determined by the interaction of six classes of interests, having subjective and objective aspects, aimed at health, well-being, communication, knowledge, beauty and justice. Sociology should give practical recommendations in the shape of " social technology”, designed to contribute to the improvement of social institutions.

Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich (1889–1968)

Russian-American sociologist. After emigrating from Russia in 1930, he became a professor at Harvard University. He considered the historical process as a cyclical change of the main types of culture, which are based on an integrated sphere of values ​​and symbols. Arguing that modern culture is experiencing a general crisis, P. A. Sorokin associated it with the development of materialism and science and saw a way out in the development of a religious “idealistic” culture. One of the founders of the theories of social stratification and social mobility. The central theme of P. Sorokin’s work is the problem of sociocultural dynamics. Sorokin is characterized by a macrosociological approach to research: he considers civilizations and cultures as autonomous units of his analysis. In his opinion, any society can be described and understood only through the prism of its inherent system of meanings, norms and values. This system is a one-time cultural quality of a particular society. He developed the concept of non-directional dynamics of social development, using the concepts of progress, regression and culture. He came up with the idea of ​​convergence, according to which in the future the capitalist and communist types of society will merge into a kind of integral society, which “will unite the majority of positive values ​​and be freed from the serious defects of each type.”

Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903)

English philosopher, sociologist, psychologist, one of the founders of positivism, founder of the organic school in sociology, ideologist of liberalism. A representative of social evolutionism, he considered the process of evolution as a movement from simple to complex. Within consciousness, he identified various feelings, to which he classified sensations and emotions, united through an associative process. Developed the mechanical doctrine of universal evolution; in ethics - a supporter of utilitarianism. He made a significant contribution to the study of primitive culture.

Tarde, Gabriel (1843–1904)

French sociologist, one of the founders of social psychology. He compared society to a brain, the cell of which is the brain of the individual. He considered collective consciousness a function, and not a factor, of individual consciousnesses. Tarde saw the task of sociological science in the study of the laws of imitation, thanks to which society, on the one hand, maintains its existence as an integrity, and on the other, develops as inventions arise and spread in various areas of social reality.

Takhtarev, Konstantin Mikhailovich, (1871–1925)

An outstanding Russian sociologist, he specialized in the field of genetic sociology. He was the organizer and first director of Russia's first sociological research institute. In 1916, he became one of the organizers of the Sociological Society named after M. M. Kovalevsky, from 1917 he taught at Petrograd University, and in 1919 he created a research institute, subsequently renamed on his initiative to the Sociological Institute.

Tolstoy, Lev Nikolaevich, (1828–1910)

The main feature of his socio-political views was the priority moral values.

Thomas, William Isaac, (1863–1947)

W. Thomas formulated the concept of the social situation, which he divided into three important components: objective conditions inherent in existing social theories and values; attitudes of the individual and social group; formulation of the essence of the situation by the acting individual. In joint work with F. Znaniecki, W. Thomas studied in detail precisely the system of social attitudes and showed that conflicts and social disintegration necessarily arise in cases where individual definitions of the situation do not coincide with group values.

Toffler, Alvin (b. 1928)

American sociologist and futurologist, publicist, public figure. In a vivid, imaginative and critical form, he showed the aggravation of social contradictions of the scientific and technological revolution. Proclaiming the proximity of a “super-industrial society”, A. Toffler sees the path to transition to it in the humanization of all spheres of life of a modern person on the basis of the widespread introduction of the latest computer (third generation) technology, which will allow the transition from standardized mass service to the most individual.

Tugan-Baranovsky, Mikhail Ivanovich, (1865–1919)

He identified five main groups of human interests, among which the most important for social development are psychological, egoaltruistic and religious. According to the concept of Tugan-Baranovsky, class struggle operates only in the sphere of economic interests of man and society, but is not applicable to those aspects of human life that lie outside the economy. Class struggle is nothing more than the struggle for the distribution of products in society.

Fromm, Erich, (1900–1980)

Representative of neo-Freudianism. One of the representatives of the Frankfurt Critical School. Fromm's subject of consideration is the laws and principles of the action of the subjective, human factor in the socio-historical process. E. Fromm believed that society performs not only a negative, repressive function, but also a “creative” one. One of the central problems in E. Fromm’s work is the problem of alienation. In modern society, alienation is total in nature and is not associated with one or another social group; a huge part becomes an object of manipulation by other people and their symbols. Due to its alienated nature, modern society is characterized by the frustration of existential needs (a feeling of loss of meaning) and, according to E. Fromm’s definition, a steady transformation into a “civilization of the manipulated masses.” He paid great attention to the role of the unconscious, saying that “there is no such thing as the unconscious; There are only those feelings that we are aware of and those that we are not aware of.”

Habermas, Jurgen, (b. 1929)

German philosopher and social theorist, representative of neo-Marxism. The most influential thinker in Germany. Represents the second generation of the Frankfurt School. The most fundamental. He proposed a typology of social action, which he contrasted with Weber’s typology. One of the central concepts for J. Habermas is the concept life world, denoting the sphere of direct interaction between individuals. He pointed out the need to rethink the role of the state and ideology in the period of “late capitalism.” He paid attention to the problems of civil society and democracy. Criticized postmodernist concepts.

Homans, George Caspar, (1910)

American sociologist and social psychologist, one of the authors of the theory of social selection. Homans considers the initial unit of analysis to be the “elementary social behavior”, that is, direct contacts between individuals, and on this basis seeks to comprehend the functioning of social systems at various levels. Homans studies social behavior on the basis of theories borrowed from behavioral psychology and the economic concept of exchange. By describing social behavior as a universal exchange and formulating the rules of “fair exchange,” Homans actually assumes the existence of a single ahistorical set of values ​​and conditions of free competition.

Chizhevsky Alexander Leonidovich (1897–1964)

Soviet scientist. Representative of the geographical school of space direction. Studied the influence of solar activity cycles on earth processes. A.L. Chizhevsky came to the conclusion that increased solar activity leads to drastic changes in the life of society - crises, disasters, revolution.

Chicherin, Boris Nikolaevich, (1828-1904)

Theorist of state and law, sociologist and historian, publicist and public figure. The central idea of ​​B. N. Chicherin’s social concept is the priority of the state and the central administration in relation to society, public associations and unions in the course of the development of Russia. He considered the main goal of the government reforms necessary for Russia to be to give flexibility and mobility to the ossified structures of power. According to B. N. Chicherin, revolutions are an example of movement for the sake of movement, when society is freed from previous forms of life, but does not create the necessary conditions for the development of its new organic principles.

Spengler, Oswald, (1880–1936)

German philosopher. Representative of the philosophy of life; philosopher of history and culture; social philosopher and publicist, author of the famous work “The Decline of Europe,” in which he prophesied the inevitable death of Western European civilization. Spengler's philosophy of history is built on the basis of a specific interpretation of culture, which is considered, firstly, not as a single universal human culture, but as split into 8 types, each of which grows on the basis of its own unique “proto-phenomenon” - a way of “experiencing life”: Egyptian , Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Greco-Roman, Byzantine-Arab, Mayan culture, also the awakening Russian-Siberian culture; secondly, as subject to a rigid rhythm that determines the main phases of its internal development: birth and childhood, youth and maturity, old age and “decline.” Based on this rhythm, within the general “cycle” of evolution of each of the above-mentioned cultures, two main stages are distinguished: the stage of the ascent of culture – “culture” itself and the stages of its descent – ​​civilization; the first of them is characterized by an “organic” type of evolution in all spheres of human life - social and political, religious and ethical, artistic and scientific; the second is a “mechanical” type of evolution, which represents the “ossification” of the organic life of a culture and its disintegration.

VIII. Dictionary of sociological terms

Social adaptation is the process of adaptation of an individual or group to a changed environment using various social means.

Anomie is lawlessness, a state of society in which some of its members, knowing about the existence of binding norms, treat them negatively and indifferently.

Assimilation is the gradual merging of minority groups into the dominant culture.

Bureaucracy is a system of apparatus power and control in an organization consisting of a number of officials whose official statuses form a hierarchy and who are distinguished by formally established rights and responsibilities that determine their actions and responsibilities.

Validity is the main characteristic of the quality of measurement in sociology, one of the components of the reliability of sociological information. There are two types of validity of sociological information: theoretical (or conceptual) and empirical (criterion-based validity).

Social interaction is a way of implementing social connections and relationships in a system that presupposes the presence of at least two subjects, the interaction process itself, as well as the conditions and factors for its implementation. In the course of interaction, the formation and development of the individual, the social system, their change in the social structure of society, etc. take place.

A sample is a part of the population (population), strictly reflecting the characteristics and correlation of all elements of the general population (the community under study).

The sample population is a reduced model of the general population; those to whom the sociologist distributes questionnaires, who are called respondents, who represent the object of sociological research.

Gender ideal is the expectation of certain behavior of men and women inherent in a given culture.

The general population is the population to which the sociologist wants to extend the findings of the study.

A hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain phenomena, processes, etc. During the course of research, the hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.

The state is a part of society that has power and strength, as well as the ability to distribute public resources and funds.

A group is a number of people who interact with each other in a certain way, feel that they belong to the group and are perceived by others as members of this group.

A secondary group is a collection of people between whom there are almost no emotional relationships; their interaction is determined by the desire to achieve certain goals.

An instrumental group is a group created to perform a specific job.

Control group (in an experiment) - subjects who are treated the same as subjects from the experimental group, but they are not influenced by the independent variable.

A small group is a collection of people between whom there are direct contacts.

The primary group is a small number of people between whom direct contacts are established, reflecting many aspects of their personal properties, and stable emotional relationships develop.

An ethnic group is a part of society whose members perceive themselves (or are considered from the point of view of others) as bearers of a common culture.

Deviance is behavior that is considered as a deviation from group norms and leads to isolation, treatment, correction or punishment of the offender.

Demographic transition is a theory according to which the process of population growth consists of three stages: 1) high levels of fertility and mortality of the population; 2) reduction in mortality with high level mortality; 3) low level fertility and mortality.

Demography is the science of population, studying its size, composition, distribution and change.

Representative democracy is a state where the people delegate their power to elected persons for certain periods of time, who must subsequently be elected. Such states are characterized by the following features: recognition of individual rights, the presence of a constitutional government; consent on the part of those being governed; loyal opposition.

Deprivation is the destruction of a person’s personality.

Social deprivation is deprivation, poverty that arises due to lack of access to material and cultural benefits due to health reasons, large families, alcoholism, etc.

A dyad is a group of two people.

Sampling unit – in a sample survey, the unit of data selection and analysis

Contagion theory is an explanation of collective behavior that believes that people in a crowd are irrational and susceptible to emotions that spread like a virus.

Ideology is a system that affirms certain values ​​and facts.

The id is the subconscious “I”, which is a source of energy stimulated by the desire for pleasure.

Index (list, indicator, index) is a quantitative indicator that summarizes primary sociological information obtained during measurements using one or more scales.

Innovation is a reaction to an anomaly that implies agreement with the goals of society, but denies socially approved ways of achieving them.

A social institution (establishment of an institution) is a stable form of organizing the joint activities of people. Performs organizational, regulatory, managerial and educational functions in society.

An interview is a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to questions provided for in the research program.

Social information – knowledge, messages, information about people’s relationships, the state and nature of the development of social processes, living conditions, the social status of individuals and social groups, the interaction of their interests.

Sociological research is a type of social research, methods of studying social attitudes and behavior (activities) of individuals based on a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures. Their goal is to obtain reliable data about the object or process being studied in order to solve specific theoretical and social problems.

Class is a large social group that differs from others in terms of access to social wealth (distribution of benefits in society), power, and social prestige.

Cluster sampling is a method of classifying population groups according to certain characteristics.

Cohort – all people born within one year or several years.

Convergence theory – 1). In the study of collective behavior, the view that the crowd itself does not promote unusual behavior. It attracts certain types of people, and thus the behavior to which they were predisposed is realized; 2). In studies of the development of societies, convergence refers to the increase in similarity as traditional societies develop economically.

Content analysis is a method for quantitatively studying the content of social information.

Counterculture is a subculture whose norms and values ​​contradict the main components of the dominant culture.

Control of variables is the ability of the researcher to consciously regulate and change the experimental conditions.

Social conflict is a clash of interests of various social responsibilities, a special case of the manifestation of social contradiction.

Conformity is a state that presupposes the agreement of individuals with the goals of society and the use of legal methods to achieve them.

Correlation analysis is a quantitative study of statistical relationships between characteristics of social objects.

Correlation is a functional dependence between two variable quantities, which is characterized by the fact that each value of one of them corresponds to a very specific knowledge of the other.

Correlation coefficient is a measure of the density of correlation. The connection is denser when each value of one characteristic corresponds to different but close values ​​of another characteristic, that is, they are closely located around their average size.

Culture is a system of values, ideas about life, common to people who are connected by the commonality of a certain way of life.

Mass culture is a form of culture whose works are standardized and distributed to the general public without taking into account regional, religious or class subcultures.

Elite culture is a form of culture that includes fine arts, music, literature and is intended for the upper strata of society.

Cultural diffusion is the spread of the characteristics and properties of a given culture to other cultures.

Cultural relativism is the belief that a culture can only be understood on the basis of its own values ​​and in its own context.

Legitimacy - recognition by members of a community of an existing social order, conferring prestige that dictates norms and establishes patterns of behavior.

Lobbying is a system of organized groups under legislative bodies that put pressure on government officials (even bribery) in order to make decisions in the interests of the organizations they represent.

Longitudinal research is a type of repeated research in which long-term periodic observation of the same individuals or social facilities.

Macrosociology is a field of sociological knowledge concerned with large models of social structures.

The macro level of sociological research is a focus on large-scale social structures and institutions.

Marginality is a concept denoting the intermediate, “borderline” position of an individual between any social groups.

Mentality is a deep level of collective and individual consciousness, a set of ready-made attitudes and predispositions of an individual or social group to act, think and perceive the world in a special way.

Method is a systematic way of achieving a theoretical or practical result, solving a problem or obtaining new information. It is based on certain regulatory principles of cognition and activity, awareness of the specifics of the subject area being studied and the laws of functioning of its objects. It outlines the path to achieving the goal (truth) and includes standard and unambiguous rules (procedures) that ensure the reliability and validity of knowledge. It is customary to distinguish between general and specific scientific methods.

Research methodology is a strategy of scientific research, based on an awareness of the tasks, method or methods of its implementation, program settings, value characteristics, standards and regulators of the theory of the subject area being studied.

Microsociology is a field of sociological knowledge that is associated with the analysis of everyday interactions between people.

The micro level of sociological research is focusing on the smallest elements of interpersonal communication.

Vertical mobility is a change in the position of an individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status.

Horizontal mobility is a change in position that does not lead to an increase in social status.

Individual mobility is a change in the position of an individual in the system of social stratification.

Integration mobility is the transition of professional status from parents to children.

Collective (group) mobility is a change in the position of a social group in the system of social stratification.

Observation is a method of sociological research and obtaining information through direct and immediate recording of events and the conditions under which they occur.

Science is a social institution that ensures the production and accumulation of knowledge; one of the forms of social consciousness.

Inequality is a situation in which people do not have equal access to social benefits.

Nominalism is a direction in sociology, according to which all social phenomena receive reality only as the realization of the goals, attitudes, and motives of the individual.

A social norm is a means of social regulation of the behavior of individuals and groups.

Norms are rules of conduct, expectations, and standards that govern interactions between people.

Exchange theory is a concept of social interaction that argues that people's behavior is influenced by how it has been rewarded in the past.

Data processing is a set of operations and procedures for analyzing primary sociological information.

Education is an institutionalized (formal) process through which values, skills and meanings are transferred from one person, group, community to others.

Social movement– organized collective efforts that promote or hinder social change.

Society is an association of people that has certain geographical boundaries, a common legislative system and a certain national (sociocultural) identity.

Community is a collection of people who have a common permanent place of residence and depend on each other for Everyday life and carrying out many activities to meet general economic and social needs.

Customs are less important social norms. Violation of them entails a mild punishment or no punishment at all.

A sociological survey is a method of collecting primary information by asking questions to a specific social group.

An organization is a large secondary group formed to achieve specific goals.

Social relations are relationships between people and groups of people occupying different positions in society.

Alienation in the world of work is a state of workers that consists of a feeling of powerlessness, a feeling that work has no meaning, and a psychological lack of involvement in their work.

Panel research is a method of collecting information through several surveys of members of a permanent sample (panel).

Paradigm - a unified system theoretical influences, methodological principles, methodological techniques and empirical results shared by the scientific community within an independent field of knowledge or theoretical approach.

Variable – in an experiment or research, a characteristic that can take on different values ​​(for example, gender, age, social class, income, occupation).

A dependent variable is a variable that needs to be explained using an experiment or other means (for example, in mass surveys).

Independent variable - in an experiment or mass study, a variable that explains or causes changes in the phenomenon being studied.

Pilot study – pilot study predominantly methodological in nature, the purpose of which is to check the quality of sociological tools.

Population density is the number of inhabitants per square kilometer.

Collective behavior is the relatively spontaneous and unorganized behavior of a group of people reacting to an uncertain or threatening situation.

Repeated research is a long-term study of a certain object according to a single program.

Political socialization is a developmental process during which children and adolescents perceive ideas, political positions and behavior typical of a given community.

Political structure– a set of ideologies and institutions that shape political activity within society.

A research problem is an interrogative situation associated with a contradiction between social reality and its theoretical representation and requiring, in order to understand and resolve it, the use of social methods, procedures and techniques of use.

A social problem is a social contradiction, perceived as a significant discrepancy between what exists and what should be.

A research program is a statement of its purpose, general concept, initial hypotheses, along with a logical sequence of operations for testing them.

A social process is a consistent change in the states of society or its individual systems.

Surplus value is the difference between the total cost and the cost of raw materials, means of production, labor (cost).

Division of labor is the differentiation of types of activities that develops in society in the process of historical development.

Ranking is a way of assessing a variable when its value is assigned a place in a sequence of values ​​(the so-called rank), determined using an ordinal scale.

Rationalization is a transition from spontaneous, subjective traditional modes of behavior to organizing activities according to rational established requirements.

Rational-legitimate domination is power based on the belief in the correctness and necessity of legalized norms.

Religion is a system of beliefs and rituals by which a group of people explain and respond to what they find supernatural and sacred.

Resocialization is the process of acquiring new roles, values, and knowledge at every stage of life.

Representativeness is the property of a sample population to reproduce the characteristics of the general population. The representativeness of the sample means that, with some error, it is possible to identify the settings on the sample population, the distribution of the characteristics being studied, with their actual distributions in the general population.

Respondent is a person who acts as a source of primary information during a survey or as a result of observation about a certain phenomenon.

Ritual is patterns of behavior in relation to the sacred and supernatural.

Kinship is a set of social relationships based on factors such as blood ties, marriage and legal norms (adoption, guardianship, etc.).

Role tension is a situation in which one role makes conflicting demands on a person.

A role system is a set of roles corresponding to a given status.

Role conflict is a situation in which a person is faced with the conflicting demands of two or more incompatible roles.

A role is the behavior that is expected from a person occupying a certain status.

Age role is a set of expectations associated with age.

Sanctions are social punishments and rewards that promote compliance with norms.

Negative sanctions are punishments that discourage behavior that does not conform to cultural norms.

Positive sanctions – encouragement for compliance with standards.

Family is an association of people based on consanguinity, marriage or adoption, connected by a common life and mutual responsibility for raising children; family members often live in the same house.

Nuclear family is a family structure consisting of adult parents and their dependent children.

Extended family - a family structure that includes, in addition to the nuclear family (spouse and children), other relatives, such as older parents, their sisters and brothers, grandchildren, and cousins.

A symbol is a concept, action or object that replaces another concept, action or object and expresses its meaning.

Socialization is the means of developing skills and social attitudes of individuals that correspond to their social roles.

Social disorganization is a condition in a society in which cultural values, norms, and social relationships are absent, weak, or contradictory.

Social interaction is a process in which people act and interact with each other.

Social reality (social world) is created in the process of social interactions of subjects and is the result of their life activities. Basic social indicator– culture of society.

Social is a property that is immanently (internally) inherent in the individual and communities, formed as a result of the processes of socialization and integration of a person into society, into social relations.

A social institution is a set of roles and statuses designed to satisfy a specific social need.

Social control is a set of norms and values ​​of society, as well as sanctions applied to implement them. In the study of deviation, the efforts of others aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing deviants or correcting them.

Sociometry is the study of the structure of interpersonal relationships in small groups.

The social environment is a set of social conditions of human life that influence his consciousness and behavior.

The middle class is a social group that occupies an intermediate position between the main communities (groups) of society.

Age status is a social position assigned to an individual based on age.

Achieved status is a status acquired by an individual in society through his own efforts.

Basic status is a status that determines a person’s social position.

Ascribed (prescribed) status is a status inherited from birth, innate.

Social status is a person’s position in society, associated with certain rights and responsibilities.

Stratification is the order in which inequality is likely to be transmitted from one generation to the next, forming different layers (strata) of society.

Age stratification is a system in which different age groups in society are rewarded unequally.

Social structure – stable connection of elements in a social system; this set of interconnected and interacting classes, social strata, groups, etc.

Subculture is a system of norms of values ​​that distinguish the culture of a certain group from the culture of the majority of society.

Superego - according to Z. Freud, the structure of the “I” that performs the functions of moral control and moral assessment.

A theory is a statement containing a set of interrelated starting points and hypotheses.

A test is a method of measuring and assessing the socio-psychological qualities of an individual.

Sociological research technique is a set of organizational and methodological techniques and methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data.

Typology is a way of identifying the similarities and differences of many social objects, searching for criteria for their classification.

A crowd is a relatively large number of people in direct contact with each other.

A totalitarian state is a state whose leaders strive for complete control over the country and people. Such states are usually characterized by the following features: the inculcation of a certain ideology, a one-party system, the use of terror, control of the media, control of weapons and centralized management of the economy

Spot research (one-time) – collection of information about the state or quantitative characteristics of a social phenomenon at the time of study.

A social fact is a single socially significant event or a certain set of homogeneous events typical for a particular sphere of society.

Charisma is the ability of some leaders to inspire their followers to believe in their superhuman abilities.

Charismatic power is power based on devotion to a leader who is credited with certain higher, almost mystical properties.

Values ​​are beliefs shared in society (community) regarding the goals that people should strive for and the main means of achieving them (terminal and instrumental values).

A church is a religious organization that operates in society and has a close connection with it.

Civilization is a stage in the development of society; the level of social and cultural development that is associated with the division of labor.

The scale is the measuring part of the tool for assessing sociological information.

Egalitarianism is a concept of universal equality that has become widespread since the era of bourgeois revolutions; Historically, two main concepts of egalitarianism have developed - as equality of opportunity and as equality of results.

Ego - according to Z. Freud, an integral part of the personality, acting as an intermediary between the Superego and the Id. Controls human behavior and helps the individual navigate the world around him.

An experiment is a method of obtaining data in which variables are controlled to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

Ethnomethodology is the study of everyday norms, rules of behavior, meanings of the language of communication that regulate interactions between people.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other cultures based on one’s own; belief in the biological and cultural superiority of members of one's own group over other groups.

Language is a system of communication carried out on the basis of sounds and symbols that have conventional but structurally justified meanings.

1. Andreeva, T.V. Family psychology [Text]: textbook. allowance / T. V. Andreeva. – St. Petersburg: Rech, 2005. – 244 p.

2. Belyaeva, L. A. Social stratification and the middle class in Russia: 10 years of post-Soviet development [Text] / L. A. Belyaeva. – M.: Academia, 2001. – 248 p.

4. Weber, M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism [Text] / M. Weber // Selected articles. prod. – M.: [b. i.], 1990. – P. 60–207.

5. Vorozheikin, I. E. Conflictology [Text]: textbook / I. E. Vorozheikin, A. Ya. Kibanov, D. K. Zakharov. – M.: INFRA-M, 2002. – 240 p.

6. Gorelov, A. A. Sociology [Text]: textbook / A. A. Gorelov. – M.: Eksmo, 2006. – 496 p.

7. Gorelov, A. A. Sociology in questions and answers [Text]: textbook. allowance / A. A. Gorelov. – M.: Eksmo, 2005. – 320 p.

8. Gottlieb, A. S. Introduction to sociological research. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Methodology. Research practices [Text]: textbook. allowance / A. S. Gottlieb. – M.: Flinta: MPSI, 2005. – 384 p.

9. Dmitriev, A.V. Conflictology [Text]: textbook. allowance / A. V. Dmitriev. – M.: Gardariki, 2000. – 320 p.

10. Durkheim, E. Method of sociology [Text] / E. Durkheim // On the division of social labor. – M.: [b. And.]. – pp. 391–566.

11. Zdravomyslov, A. G. Sociology of conflict: Russia on the ways to overcome the crisis [Text]: textbook. allowance / A. G. Zdravomyslov. – M.: Aspect Press, 1995. – 317 p.

12. History of political and legal doctrines [Text]: textbook / ed. V. S. Nersesyants. – M.: Legal. lit., 1983. – 720 p.

13. Kravchenko, A. I. General sociology[Text]: textbook. manual for universities / A. I. Kravchenko. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2001. – 479 p.

14. Levin, K. Resolution of social conflicts [Text] / K. Levin. – St. Petersburg. : Speech, 2000. – 408 p.

15. General sociology [Text]: textbook. allowance / under general ed. prof. A. G. Efendieva. – M.: INFRA-M, 2004. – 654 p.

16. Radugin, A. A. Sociology [Text]: course of lectures / A. A. Radugin, K. A. Radugin. – M.: Library, 2004. – 224 p.

17. Sorokin, P. A. Main features of Russian philosophical culture [Text] / P. A. Sorokin. – M.: [b. i.], 1990. – P. 462–489.

18. Sorokin, P. A. Social stratification and mobility [Text] / P. A. Sorokin // Man. Civilization. Society. – M.: Politizdat, 1992. – P. 295–424.

19. Sociology [Text]: textbook. for universities / ed. prof. V. N. Lavrinenko. – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2001. – 407 p.

20. Sociology [Text]: textbook. manual / ed. D. S. Klementyeva. – M.: Eksmo, 2004. – 480 p.

21. Sociology. Fundamentals of general theory [Text]: textbook. for universities / otv. ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. Osipov. – M.: Norma, 2005. – 912 p.

22. Tseluiko, V. M. Psychology of the modern family [Text] / V. M. Tseluiko. M.: VLADOS, 2004. – 288 p.

23. Chernyak, E. M. Sociology of the family [Text]: textbook. allowance / E. M. Chernyak. – M.: Dashkov i K, 2004. – 238 p.

24. Schneider, L. B. Fundamentals family psychology[Text]: textbook. allowance / L. B. Schneider. – M.: MODEK, 2003. – 928 p.

25. Encyclopedic sociological dictionary [Text] / general. ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences G.V. Osipov. – M.: ISPI RAS, 1995. – 939 p.

26. Books marked with an asterisk must be used when covering each topic of the test.

Annex 1

Sample title page design

federal agency of Education

Syktyvkar Forestry Institute – branch

State educational institution

higher professional education

"St. Petersburg State

Forestry Academy named after S. M. Kirov"

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences

test

Discipline: Sociology

On the topic: Sociology of conflict

Syktyvkar 2007

Appendix 2

Sample table of contents design

INTRODUCTION

1. Ethics and etiquette of business conversation (negotiations)

1.1. Negotiation methods

2. Principled negotiations. Basic elements of negotiations

2.1. Distinguishing between the participants in the discussion and the issues being discussed

2.2. The influence of perception, emotions, differences of interests on the outcome of negotiations

2.3. Mutually beneficial options. Objective criteria

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

Appendix 3

Examples of bibliographic records

Bibliography

Agafonova, N. N. Civil law[Text]: textbook. manual for universities / N. N. Agafonova, T. V. Bogacheva, L. I. Glushkova; under. total ed. A. G. Kalpina; auto entry Art. N. N. Polivaev; M-in general and prof. Education of the Russian Federation, Moscow. state legal acad. – Ed. 2nd, revised and additional – M.: Yurist, 2002. – 542 p.

Bakhvalov, N. S. Numerical methods [Text]: textbook. manual for physics and mathematics. specialties of universities / N. S. Bakhvalov, N. P. Zhidkov, G. M. Kobelkov; under general ed. N. I. Tikhonova. – 2nd ed. – M.: Fizmatlit: Lab. basic knowledge; SPb. : Nev. dialect, 2002. – 630 p.

Bocharov, I. N. Kiprensky [Text] / Ivan Bocharov, Yulia Glushakova. – 2nd ed., meaning. add. – M.: Young Guard, 2001. – 390 p.

“The educational process in higher education in Russia,” interuniversity scientific and practical conference. (2001; Novosibirsk). Interuniversity scientific-practical conference“The educational process in higher education in Russia,” April 26–27. 2001 [Text]: [dedicated. To the 50th anniversary of the NGAVT: materials] / editorial board: A. B. Borisov [and others]. – Novosibirsk: NGAVT, 2001. – 157 p.

GOST 7. 53–2001. Editions. International Standard Book Numbering [Text]. – Instead of GOST 7.53–86; input 2002–07–01. – Minsk: Interstate. Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification; M.: Publishing house of standards, cop. 2002. – 3 p. - (System of standards on information, librarianship and publishing).

Erina, E. M. Customs of the Volga Germans [Text] = Sitten und Brauche der Wolgadeutchen / Ekaterina Erina, Valeria Salkova; artist N. Starikov; [Intl. German union culture]. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Gothika, 2002. – 102 p.

Musset, L. Barbarian invasions of Western Europe [Text]: second wave / Lucien Musset; translation from French A. Topoleva; [note A. Yu. Karchinsky]. – St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2001. – 344 p.

Perrone, P. D. Creation of corporate systems based on Java 2 Enterprise Edition [Text]: hands. developer: [trans. from English] / Paul J. Perrone, Venkata S. R. “Krishna”, R. Chaganti. – M. [etc.]: Williams, 2001. – 1179 p.

Semenov, V.V. Philosophy: the result of millennia. Philosophical psychology [Text] / V. V. Semenov; Ross. acad. Sciences, Pushchin. scientific Center, Institute of Cell Biophysics, Acad. problems of preserving life. – Pushchino: PSC RAS, 2000. – 64 p.

In 1920 he became a professor in the department of sociology. However, the authorities are increasingly dissatisfied with the way of thinking of the first Soviet professor of sociology. At the same time, Lenin sharply raised the question of the need for communist control over programs and content of courses in the social sciences. The “bourgeois” professors began to be gradually removed from teaching and, even more so, from leadership...

Economics, etc. Thus, the recognition of sociology as a specific science is complemented by<социологизме>a kind of sociological expansionism (sometimes referred to as<социологический империализм>). Sociology was conceived by Durkheim not just as an independent social science among others, but also as<система, корпус социальных наук>. As a result<социологизм...

Young scientists actively asserting their position in society. This is especially noticeable in the history of social sciences. In Russian sociology, these subjects are still waiting for their researchers. At the same time, the history of the development of methodology and methods of sociology indicates a steady enrichment and improvement of their heuristic potential. This circumstance is so obvious that it allows us to remain...

Historical interest, because it shows to what extent the fate of a new direction depends not only on conditions, but also on people - their enthusiasm, interest, perseverance, abilities. A significant contribution to the development of the sociology of science was made by the staff of the Department of Philosophy of the Natural Faculties of Rostov State University. Its head, M.M. Karpov, published a work on...

The section contains information about articles on economics, sociology and management. In many cases, the full texts of articles are provided. ()

Sociological research

Issue N1 for 2005

The relevance of the topic is due to the consequences of socio-economic changes in the country and the continuation of the processes of profound transformations of the family institution (in Russia and other countries). The empirical base is the results of a study conducted by the authors in 2003 of large families in Moscow using survey methods and free interviews (198 families were covered). Some results: a large family most often has three children (75% of the families surveyed); there are families with four (18%) and five (6%) children; more of them are already rare. As before, such a family is characterized by low incomes, but there is a layer of wealthy parents with many children. If in the “average family” the most common is an approximately equal contribution of parents to the family budget, then in a “large family” the contribution of the father predominates (the mother takes care of the children, raises them and runs the household). Help from official government agencies is insignificant. The main problems of “large” families: lack of living space, money, time, illness of children, inability to “switch off.” “Stereotype” of upbringing: raising children to be good people, but not in the first place – giving a good education. In many ways, a large family is not rational (based on large families and educational guidelines).

The results of a study of attachment to the village as a life orientation of rural youth and a factor in the reproduction of social structure are presented. It is based on data from surveys of rural school graduates conducted by the author in 1994, 1997 and 2004 in one of the districts of the Saratov region (50 11th grade students were surveyed on the eve of graduation). According to these data, in the mood of rural youth in 1994, the most prestigious professions were bankers and businessmen in cities, farmers in the countryside; students also considered getting a good (by rural standards) paid job in law enforcement agencies as a good prospect. In 2004, there was a reorientation with a return to ordinary labor professions (compared to 1997, the number of those who are ready to work as security guards in a private company decreased three times), but the expectation of working in the city remained the leading motive for the life prospects of the majority of rural graduates schools In a 1994 survey, high school students extremely rarely mentioned the traditional professions of tractor driver, milkmaid, and cattleman as possible employment opportunities; In comparison with them, the jobs of a technician at a school, a cleaner in an office, or a communications department worker seem more preferable. There are no objective conditions for the widespread introduction of farming (low level of mechanization, etc.). In conclusion, the adaptation of the rural population to new realities is examined, the emergence of “symbiotic forms in the countryside, the essence of which is far from the reform project,” is noted; it is shown that family farms are still independently looking for survival niches and need government attention as a source of growth in the agricultural economy.

The scenario of an educational game is presented, tested by the author in practical classes in sociology for students of the Moscow Pedagogical State University. The game is a scientific debate between two opposing teams - “journalists” and “sociologists”. “Journalists” come out with arguments in defense of interactive polls (noting, for example, that these programs give programs greater dynamism and urgency, attract people’s attention to the problems of public life, ensure their open discussion, allow listeners or viewers to openly express their attitude to events and etc.). Sociologists act as a critic, which is natural, since the interactive survey method is used almost exclusively by journalists, while sociologists use other methods in public opinion research. Critical arguments of “sociologists”: interactive surveys are not representative, they show the “crowd effect”, i.e. a tendency to join the majority opinion, they can be used by a TV presenter to manipulate public opinion, etc.

The social and socio-psychological factors that determine the choice of the profession of a social worker are considered. The results of surveys of students of Yaroslavl State University (YarSU) from the department of "Social Work", as well as Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University (YSPU), studying in the specialty "Social Pedagogy" are presented. The author has been studying the work motivations of social workers since 1994, a number of her research projects were from 1996-2004. carried out with the support of the Eurasia Foundation, Agency for International Development, Mott Foundation, Soros Foundation and the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. During a survey of YarSU and YSPU students studying in these specialties, it was found that approximately half of the girls and only every twelfth boy give preference to their future profession (the profession is perceived mainly as female); From junior to senior students, the desire to work in their specialty decreases. A content analysis of the content of written work (essays) completed by first-year students on the topic: “Why do I want to be a social worker?” (575 works collected). The main result: compensatory motivation for choosing a profession dominates, along with an inadequate idea of ​​\u200b\u200bit, which manifests itself in neglect of the content of the profession (“I don’t care who to be - a social worker, a teacher, a tour guide...”, “I need higher education and work with people, not machines." 800 social workers were interviewed, whose activities are directly related to the organization and implementation of social work: these are employees of the administration of the Yaroslavl region (departments of social protection and employment) and specialists from structural divisions of social protection departments in 6 districts of Yaroslavl and 18 municipal districts of the Yaroslavl region. The indicators of the motive of material values, namely dissatisfaction with low wages, are higher, the less altruistic motivation is represented in the respondents’ answers. The lack of basic knowledge and specific skills among social workers leads to the fact that in their work they are mainly guided by their spiritual qualities and everyday experience.

The issues of creating research archives and using them for secondary analysis of data on sociological research are considered. Similar practices have been reported in research, scientific and educational institutions in Germany and the USA. Their archives are distinguished by modern database storage technology, accessibility, the availability of computer viewing and checking programs, etc. In Russia, the 20-year practice of maintaining quantitative databases is supported by the following centers: FOM, VTsIOM, Levada-Center, ROMIR-Monitoring, ZIRCON, etc. Access to them by third-party researchers, with the exception of a number of FOM databases, is very limited. The Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences has been operating the Data Bank of Sociological Research for 20 years; there is an INSIS database of 122 domestic studies conducted from 1966 to 1997. VTsIOM, together with the Independent Institute of Social Policy, began to create a unified national repository of empirical research in sociology and related disciplines (http://sofist.socpol.ru). The author noted the value of publishing primary materials, showing their significance in classical works of the early 20th century. (social research by representatives of the Chicago School and the work of W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America”). Among the rare Russian examples, the case of the study of naive writing by N. Kozlova and I. Sandomirskaya, as well as the project “The Fates of People” (directed by V.V. Semenova and E.Yu. Meshcherkina) are highlighted. The final part of the article discusses priority areas for secondary analysis: socio-historical and socio-demographic studies; longitudinal strategy.

Experts' answers to a number of questions are published: about the essence, content and place of historical sociology in sociological knowledge; its conceptual apparatus; its structure, current problems and difficulties in solving them; about historical consciousness, historical knowledge, historical memory. Prof. J. Alsted (Denmark) noted that the study of social change requires both large-scale understanding and specific studies of history. This combination is provided by historical sociology. It shares a basic theoretical apparatus with the rest of sociology and faces the same theoretical problems, but with an emphasis on historical perspective. Prof. M.Ya. Bobrov (Barnaul) examined general and special laws and categories of historical sociology. Prof. I.F. Devyatko (Moscow) pointed out the role of historiographic research and the development of sociological methods of data collection in the development of historical sociology. Prof. G.E. Zborovsky (Ekaterinburg) considered historical sociology as a branch of sociological knowledge at the intersection of sociology and history, which has a special subject and object of study. Prof. B.N. Mironov (St. Petersburg) characterized the theoretical, verification and applied tasks of historical sociology, indicated its current research problems (including understanding Russian history within the framework of macrosociological theories). Prof. A.Yu. Rozhkov (Krasnodar) believes that the processes of sociocultural transformation are subject to the rhythms of generational change. Historical sociology, in his opinion, is called upon to study models of human and social life from a generational and intergenerational perspective, producing theoretical generalizations. Prof. N.V. Romanovsky (Moscow) proposed to consider historical sociology “as a part of sociology, which, through its methods, provides knowledge about society / man with the unity of the past, present and future, giving a time and spatial continuum to sociological theorizing and empirical research by including the historical past in the analysis of the object being studied by the sociologist and thereby defining its historically given parameters."

Book review: Elsukov A.N. Methods of teaching sociology in higher education. Tutorial. Minsk, 2002. 230 p.

The book is being reviewed: Social stratification of Russian society (Ed. Golenkova Z.T.). M., 2003. 365 p.

The book is being reviewed: Sheregi F.E., Arefiev A.L. Drug addiction among young people: structure, trends, prevention. M.: Genzher, 2003. 396 p.

Based on an Internet search (using keywords), the author provides an analytical review of materials on computer sociology (CS). As it turned out, a number of universities in Western Europe and the USA offer special courses in this field of knowledge and related disciplines. Corresponding international associations have been created and journals such as "Social Science Computer Review" are published. The author understands CS as the use by sociologists of the capabilities of computer technology to solve theoretical, empirical and practical problems that arise in the process of scientific work. This discipline makes a number of requirements for theoretical concepts, including the requirement of constructibility, which means “the possibility of practical implementation of a given concept or an entire theory using any programming language in an actually functioning computer system.” Experiments on verification using CS methods of a number of classical sociological theories that “can be verified by computer simulation” are reported. It is noted that to date, CS has received the greatest application in Computational Organization Theory (organization theory). The models created have found practical application in commercial computer systems DSS (management decision support). The article identifies a number of methodological problems in computer modeling of social processes and provides an extensive bibliography.

Books are annotated: Barsukova S.Yu. INFORMAL ECONOMY: ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS. M.: Publishing house. House of State University Higher School of Economics, 2004. 488 p. RUSSIA: CENTER AND REGIONS. ISSUE 11 (ed. V.N. Ivanov and V.N. Kuznetsov). M.: RIC ISPI RAS, 2003. 408 p. Kublitskaya E.A., Kuznetsova A.V. MUSCOVITIVES ABOUT CURRENT PROBLEMS OF THE CITY. M.: RIC ISPI RAS, 2003. Kozyrev G.I. SOCIOLOGY. TUTORIAL. M.: RKhTU im. DI. Mendeleev, 2003. Sorokina N.D. EDUCATION IN THE MODERN WORLD (SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS). MONOGRAPH. M.: Economics and finance. 2004. 224 p.

The editor-in-chief sums up the work of the journal in 2004, reports on innovations and changes in the subject matter of incoming and published materials, on the most important events in the life of the Russian and world sociological community in the past year, and shares with readers the editorial plans for the next year.

Presented are data from a survey of Muscovites and residents of the Moscow region about the causes of intergenerational conflicts in families, carried out by employees of the Department of Theory and Methodology of Social Work of the Moscow State University of Service (N=1482; random sample). It is argued that the most serious causes of such conflicts are alcoholism (57%), immoral behavior of one of the spouses (38%), incompatibility of interests and goals (49%), material and housing problems (44% and 35% of respondents). Another important source of intergenerational conflict is the differences in the values ​​of the young, middle and older generations (48%). The author typologizes conflicts on a number of grounds: (1) degree of openness; (2) the marital status of the participants; (3) their reasons; (4) forms of manifestation; (5) in the temporal aspect of occurrence; (6) by family type (patriarchal, egalitarian, multigenerational, nuclear); (7) by duration; (8) by consequences (constructive, destructive, neutral, mixed).

A new word in the history of sociology (about books: Belyaeva L.A. Empirical sociology in Russia and Eastern Europe; Lapin N.I. Empirical sociology in Western Europe) [article]

The contents of two books are discussed: Belyaeva L.A. Empirical sociology in Russia and Eastern Europe. M., 2004; Lapin N.I. Empirical sociology in Western Europe. M., 2004. The author sees the significance of the publication of these books in filling the gap in domestic research on the history of sociology, since, in his opinion, in domestic publications related to this field, paramount importance was attached to the analysis and description of theoretical concepts with a clearly expressed socio-philosophical approach. Empirical sociology was usually considered "as a side element of this science, at best - as one of the auxiliary methods for testing theoretical conclusions." Zh.T. Toshchenko points to the originality of the books discussed in posing the question of how empirical sociology was born. N.I. Lapin examined the emergence of empirical sociology in three Western European countries in areas directly related to the collection and analysis of empirical data on the state of the population and the development of these countries. In England it was “political arithmetic”, in Germany - state science, in France - social statistics and sociography. In the book L.A. Belyaeva noted that the collection and analysis of empirical data in Russia began to be carried out almost simultaneously with similar surveys in other countries. The background and history of empirical sociology in Russia, the USSR and Eastern European countries is described in detail. It is shown that the books of L.A. Belyaeva and N.I. Lapin go far beyond the scope of textbooks and represent monographic studies summarizing the development of sociological science.

Normative theories of mass communication deal with “ideal options” for activities in the field of mass media. The author notes that in the second half of the 20th century. The governments of leading Western countries began to develop policy principles in the field of mass communications. They were pushed to this by the concentration of ownership and monopolization in the sphere of mass media, threatening to violate the rights of citizens to receive reliable information, the growth in the volume of multimedia operations, the increasing influence of television and then the Internet on society “as a social force that surpasses or displaces other agencies of socialization and control". The first attempt at a comparative description of media theories was the work of Siebert, Peterson and Schramm, “Four Theories of the Press,” published in 1956. Siebert defined his approach as normative, since he aimed to show not how the media actually function in society, but rather how they could function as they should function, according to certain criteria that meet the norms and values ​​characteristic of that particular society. He identified four types of media theories: authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility and Soviet media. Later, this approach was further developed, supplemented and modified by other authors, while maintaining the original provisions. In the 1980s McQuell proposed supplementing the “concept of four theories” with two more: media development, as well as democratic participation (participatory model). The features of authoritarian theory can be traced, according to Siebert, in pre-democratic, openly dictatorial and repressive societies. Libertarian or free press theory addresses the problems of ensuring the right to information while complying with laws and restrictions consistent with the norms, principles and values ​​of a liberal democratic state.