Removing the scalp from the Indians. Scalping enemies. What's next

Scalping enemies in several areas of the North American continent became widespread among the Indians even before the arrival of the white people. However, this custom was not as widespread as many authors write. On the contrary, studies show that it was only part of the military ritual of the Muskogee tribes of the southeastern United States and the Iroquois peoples of the eastern United States and the lower St. Lawrence River, as well as their immediate neighbors. The artist Jacques Le Moines, who accompanied Rene de Lodeniere's French expedition to Florida in 1564, wrote about the customs of the Florida aborigines: “In battles, a fallen warrior is instantly dragged away by specially designated people. They carry reed shoots that are sharper than any steel blade. They cut the scalp to the bone in a circle, and then tear it off (along with the hair. - Author) ... Having done this, they dig a hole in the ground and make a fire ... over the fire, they dry scalps until they become like parchment ... After the battle, they ... hang bones and scalps from the tips of their spears and triumphantly carry them home ... Returning from the war, the Indians gather in a specially designated place. Auth.) Feet, hands and scalps of fallen enemies and with great solemnity attach them to high poles. " Redskin warriors in New England, most of the Atlantic Coast, Plains, Pacific Coast, Canadian Northwest, Arctic Region, and southern United States in the early historical period never practiced scalping enemies. Almost throughout America in those days, the main trophy was the head of the enemy.

Scalping was not only an invention of the North American Indians. Herodotus wrote in the 5th century BC that the Scythians removed the skin from their heads from fallen enemies, using very sharp daggers for this. Two generations later, Xenophon noted in his notes that after several of his people were killed on the way to the Mediterranean, their hair was removed from their heads. The mention of the existence of this custom among the Scythians is confirmed by the finds of Russian archaeologists, who discovered in the Scythian barrows three skulls with characteristic scratches around the crown, remaining after scalping, as well as the mummy of a warrior with a scalp removed from his head. Byzantine historian Procopius wrote about scalping of his victims by foreign mercenaries. In the books of Maccabee, describing the atrocities and atrocities practiced against the Jews by the Syrian monarch Antiochus the Great, it is said: "the skin was ripped off the head." The Spaniards celebrated the custom of scalping their enemies among the natives of the Caribbean, Guatemala and Northern Mexico. It was also known to the natives of the Gran Chaco Territory in South America.

White more than once incited the Indians to scalp their pale-faced opponents. So, in

We will hardly ever know who and when introduced the custom of scalping enemies into Indian culture. In the 16th century, Jacques Cartier met the famous leader Donnacon on the St. Lawrence River and asked him why the Indians were doing this, the red man replied that his people were doing this because their enemies were doing it.

It is often mentioned that scalping an enemy is associated with harming the soul of the deceased. According to Stanley Vestal, many Sioux believed that the qualities of the killed enemy passed on to his killer, which may also indirectly refer to the custom of scalping. Richard Dodge reported that the old Cheyenne and Arapach people told him about a belief that existed in the past among all the Indians who lived between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, in which scalping the head killed the soul of the enemy. But in the 1880s, Captain William Clarke wrote about this: “I conducted special research in connection with this custom among the following tribes: Cheyenne, Arapah, Sioux, Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Wichita, Pawnee, Sauk and Fox, Oto, Iowa, Kickapu, Utes, Blackfeet, Blood, Piegan, Arikar, Hidat, Mandan, Shoshone, Bannock, Neperce, Pen d Orey, Kutenay, Caddo, Ponk, Shawnee, Seminole, Chippev (Ojibway), Crow, Grown Assiniboins. In none of them have I been able to find any superstitions or fantasies that scalping a person in any way damages his soul after death. "

According to the author, the clue to the origin of this custom lies in the very manner of conducting the Indian war, where the main role was assigned to small detachments of warriors who penetrated the distant lands of hostile tribes. Upon returning home, they were to bring with them proof of the death of the enemy. Various parts of the enemy corpse have always been used for victorious dances - until the end of the 19th century, in addition to scalps, they could serve as severed heads, arms, legs, hands and feet. But unlike them, the scalp did not deteriorate and was more compact during a long transition to the native village. Charles Buloh, a translator for the White Earth Agency, wrote: “I learned that when the war between the Sioux and the Ojibwe first broke out, disputes began to arise among the Ojibway warriors about the bravery of each of them, since in many cases the out-and-out cowards proclaimed their bravery. And so it was decided to remove scalps from the heads of enemies as proof of their valor. " In addition, in the future, he could serve as proof of victory over the enemy for a long time, decorating weapons, shields, etc. This idea is to some extent confirmed by the phrase said by one of the Blackfeet: "We remove scalps to make the war more severe, and when our women and children see the scalps of their enemies, their hearts are filled with joy."

The classic scalp was considered to be hair from the top of the head, which was braided in one or more braids. The first time a scalp was braided to a boy was about five years old. Despite the wide variety of hairstyles, even shaving their heads, the Indians always left a small lock of hair, called the scalp. Three strands of hair were braided into a pigtail, forming a circle with a diameter of about five centimeters at the base, and, as a rule, were decorated. In addition, hair was plucked around the circle formed by the pigtail and the skin was dyed red to highlight the scalp strand. Thanks to these tricks, anyone could tell how "correct" the scalp captured by the warrior was. White contemporaries especially noted that the Indians never shave their heads completely, always leaving a scalp strand, which served as a sign of courage and a challenge to the enemy. They seemed to be saying to their opponents: "Try to get my scalp if you dare."

Berlandier described the Comanche method of scalping as follows:

They turn the corpse on its stomach, grab it by the hair and cut the scalp in a circle. Then they step on the neck and with a short, sharp movement rip off the scalp. "The Indians were masters of this craft. Among the Cheyenne, the bravest form of scalping was considered to scalp a living enemy. Pawnee Scout Commander Luther North spoke of an incident he witnessed. The Sioux chased the Pawnee woman, who was trying to escape to a nearby trading post, where several white people took refuge.Ignoring the gunfire from the pale-faced, the Sioux galloped to the running woman, grabbed her by the hair with his left hand and, without even dismounting from the horse, scalped the unfortunate woman with a knife, which he held in his right hand. Having issued a war cry, the wild warrior turned his steed and rushed away.

The scalping procedure itself was not fatal. The Bozeman Times, July 16, 1876, contains the story of Herman Ganzio, attacked by Indians in the Black Hills. He was scalped alive but survived. According to the reporter, his head was one continuous mass of sores. Delos J. Sanbertson, some time after he safely lost his scalp, went to Laramie and tried to regrow hair on his skull, however, as he complained, "no treatment has helped so far to make the hair grow in this place again." So large was the number of survivors of white scalping on the frontier that James Robertson of Nashville, Tennessee, published in 1806 in the Philadelphia Medical and Physical Journal, Notes on Scalped Head Treatment, citing numerous cases of successful treatment.

The attitude to scalping among the Indian tribes was different. For example, among the Comanches, the scalp did not bring much honor, since anyone could remove it from an already killed enemy. Therefore, it was of secondary importance. But if the enemy was scalped under especially dangerous circumstances, he was highly valued. The scalp was a trophy, proof of success for the Dance of Victory. Among the warriors of the Oto tribe, according to Whitman, the right to the scalp belonged to the warrior who killed this enemy. In most other tribes, anyone could scalp a fallen enemy. Among the Assiniboins, the scalping of a personally killed enemy was highly valued, but the scalp itself was of little value. The Crowe didn’t consider scalping a thing worth mentioning at all. For them, he was just evidence of the murder of the enemy, but in no way a feat. As one of them put it: "You will never hear a Crow boasting about his scalps when he recounts his deeds." Many Feats said: "The warriors of my tribe rarely took the scalps of the enemy, if someone from the Crow died in the battle." The above information is quite convincing evidence that the scalp was a low-value war booty for the red-skinned fighters. He was just an emblem of victory over the enemy. The widespread belief in its value has arisen as a result of an incorrect assessment of the actions of warriors in battle by numerous white contemporaries. It is easy enough to trace why the Euro-American made such conclusions. He saw that after the fall of a killed or wounded enemy, several red-skinned horsemen rushed towards him at a gallop. They huddled around him, after which the corpse turned out to be scalped! It was difficult for a Euro-American who did not live among the Indians to understand that desperate warriors, risking their lives, tried only to be the first to touch the enemy (count the "ku"), since the Europeans did not have such a military tradition.

About the customs of the Wild West.

Photo of McGee, taken in 1890

Robert was born into a family of immigrants who went west in 1864. Robert's family joined the van caravan heading for Leavenworth, Kansas. On the way, McGee's parents died, after which he was cared for by other members of the caravan, which arrived safely at its destination. However, Robert did not want to stay there, trying to join the American army. Wherever they took him, due to his young age (he was apparently about 14-15 years old). However, McGee was hired as a driver on a caravan transporting army supplies to Fort Union, New Mexico.

Fort Union

On the way, the caravan was accompanied by cavalry, which several times entered into skirmishes with the Sioux Indians. On July 18, 1864, the caravan arrived at Fort Larned, where the drivers camped a mile from the cavalry. Late at night they were attacked by about 150 Sioux warriors under the command of Chief Little Turtle.

McGee was the sole survivor and left a description of the massacre. Robert himself was attacked by the Little Turtle, who threw his spear at him. Then the Indian shot him with a revolver, with two arrows nailed his hands to the ground and removed his scalp. All other members of the caravan were beaten, scalped and stabbed to death.

The cavalry arrived at the scene of the massacre 2 hours later, after which they immediately brought McGee to Fort Larned, where an army surgeon performed an operation on him. McGee miraculously survived, managing to live after that for at least another 26 years.

This case illustrates the brutality of the Indian Wars in the Great Plains, in which violence against non-combatants, torture and bullying of prisoners was a frightening reality. Of course, the Indians, for whom torture of prisoners and mockery of corpses were of ritual significance, were especially cruel.

Defensive actions and protective measures of Indians

There was no time of peace in the life of an Indian. There was not a single night when the attack could not have occurred. Even if the camp was huge and it seemed that the number of combat-ready soldiers in it should serve as a guarantee of security, small enemy detachments prowling around the area posed a constant threat. People were careful when moving away from the camp, especially at night. Children were taught not to cry at night, when sounds travel well over long distances, so as not to betray their location. Men always slept in a loincloth with weapons at hand. When putting children to bed, Sioux mothers, in case of an unexpected attack, often put moccasins on their legs so that, if necessary, they could jump out of the tent and run without wasting time dressing the child. It was only during periods of extreme cold and snowstorms that people in the Indian camp could relax somewhat. But, strange as it may seem, the Indians almost never cared about the full protection of their villages.

Lack of protective measures was a typical mistake in the military organization of the nomadic tribes of the Great Plains and was noted by all contemporaries. Lieutenant James Bradley wrote: “Like most nomadic tribes, the Blackfeet never fortify their camps and rarely choose a place for them based on the possibilities of good protection ... It is not their custom to establish guards around the camp day or night, therefore, despite popular belief, unexpectedly attacking their settlement is not at all difficult ... When they do not feel danger, their herds are sometimes driven off to an isolated place and left there for several days without protection. Therefore, a military detachment can easily approach the camp and hijack them. " The members of the military societies, appointed by the community leaders to carry out police functions, actually kept order in the camp, and not outside it. They separated the quarreling and punished people who violated the prohibitions of the tribal council.

It is extremely rare in Indian history to meet far-sighted leaders who understood the need for full-fledged protection of camps and herds. One of these was the chieftain of the Crow Arapush. He always chose a camp site that was easy to defend. In addition, the chief encouraged his people to buy more guns and ammunition from merchants, set up day and night guards for the camp, and made sure that his warriors were always alert and ready for battle. During his leadership, many enemies who dared to sneak up on the Crow camp were discovered and killed.

It was because of the lack of protection that American troops almost always managed to unexpectedly attack a sleeping Indian camp at dawn. Only if one of the hunters accidentally stumbled upon the tracks of an enemy detachment, the inhabitants of the camp took some precautions, but they can hardly be called perfect. The presence in the vicinity of the enemy was reported to the leader, and he, in turn, notified the entire camp through the herald. Some community leaders sometimes dispatched scouts to inspect the area. Usually, precautions were limited to three measures: watching your own tent; construction of one or more corrals for horses; organization of an ambush.

If the danger was small, then the family organized monitoring of their own tent. Men and women did not sleep in shifts, listening to the strange sounds and unusual movements of the horses tied around the tent. If the guard heard a suspicious sound, he woke up the sleeping men in the tent and they jumped out fully armed.

Spotted Eagle Sioux Camp, 1879

The primary task of the inhabitants of the camp, which was attacked by an Indian detachment or soldiers, was to drive herds of grazing horses into it so that the soldiers fought on horseback, and women, old people and children could quickly hide. The enemies, for their part, first of all tried to cut off the inhabitants of the camp from the herds. The warriors immediately rushed between the camp and the enemy forces and fought, covering the retreat of women, children and the elderly. If the camp was large, and the attack was carried out from several sides, the soldiers could surround their camp so as not to allow the enemy to break into it. Crowe recalled how one day they discovered on their land a huge camp of Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho. The enemy was twice as large as the Crow, and therefore they decided to leave, but the enemies followed them, and the Crow had no choice but to accept the battle. Many Feats: “How much the call of a brave person can strengthen the hearts of others! Our military leaders were the Iron Bull and the One Sitting in the Center of the Earth. They rode through the camp on their war horses, and each of them addressed the soldiers and even the women whose hearts had already fallen to the ground.

“This day is good to go to your Father while fighting,” they told us.

My blood boiled at these words. There was no fuss and loud voices in the camp. Even the faces of the women showed that they would do what was required of them. The men were in no hurry, and since they could no longer take us by surprise, they caught their best horses and took off their clothes, preparing to die in battle. While we were painting ourselves, the drums were beating and the women were singing war songs. In times like these, no man can feel like a coward. Every warrior will welcome battle as brave men and women sing war songs. I would have gladly met my enemies that day. We were almost done with our preparations when they arrived.

Chiefs and leaders of the Blackfeet. Colorized photograph of the late 19th century.

Crow warriors deployed their ranks around our camp so that the bullets would not reach the tents ... Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho rushed in a wide circle, uttering war cries and shelling us from the backs of their galloping horses ... Our camp and we, the warriors, were surrounded by enemies who they did not approach us, but galloped in a circle and wasted their bullets. "

Shield of the Crow chieftain Arapush. OK. 1825 g.

The settlements of semi-sedentary tribes were quite often attacked by nomads, and their protection was carried out somewhat better than in the camps of nomadic tribes. Small detachments of horse thieves constantly prowled around the area, ready to scalp the carelessly retired individuals, but women most often suffered from them. There have been years when near the Pawnee villages, almost every week, one of their women was killed at the hands of the Sioux or other enemies. It happened that the inhabitants of a particular village were afraid for weeks to go outside their settlement. If a large enemy detachment approached the village, it was impossible to avoid the battle. In these cases, the soldiers of the village usually went to the plain, forming a battle screen, after which a battle took place. Breckenridge witnessed the behavior of the inhabitants of the Arikar village after the scouts' reports about the appearance of an enemy Sioux detachment in the vicinity. “The soldiers immediately poured out of the village with great noise and shouts, some on foot, others on horseback, and hurried in the direction indicated by the scouts, down the river. They did not observe any order, but fled in disorder, encouraging each other, reminding people in our cities rushing to put out a fire. Some of them were dressed in the most splendid fashion. The roofs of earthen houses were filled with women, children and old people, whose help was expressed only in the strength of their lungs, but I saw several rushing to the military sortie, although they were almost bent under the weight of their years. I counted about five hundred people. "

Crow warriors

Perhaps no tribe suffered as much from nomad attacks as the Pawnee. Huge detachments of Sioux of 300-500 warriors usually drove up to the Pawnee village at dawn and lined up in front of it. They rode their best horses, dressed in military clothes, and sang war songs. At the moment of their appearance, the village of Pawnee turned into a disturbed anthill. Screaming women and children climbed onto the roofs of their earthen houses to watch the battle from there, while the warriors grabbed their weapons, mounted their horses and rode out into the plain to meet the enemy. If time allowed, the Pawnee warriors also donned the best military clothing, but more often they only had time to paint themselves and their war horses. The Pawnees rode between the settlement and the enemy, the Sioux slowly approaching them. When the opposing sides were separated by five hundred meters, they stopped. Both of them sang war songs. After a while, a rider separated from one of the sides. He shouted insults at the enemy and praised his fellow tribesmen. He boasted about what he had done to enemies in the past and what he was going to do in the future. Then the rider galloped towards the end of the line of enemies, bending low to the neck of his horse. At the distance of an arrow's flight, he turned his horse and rushed along the line of enemies, sometimes firing arrow after arrow at them. Those, in turn, showered him with a hail of arrows and bullets. Sometimes the enemies rushed after him in pursuit. When the daredevil reached the other end of the enemy line, he turned his horse and galloped to his own. If he was wounded or a horse was knocked out under him, as well as if the enemies pursuing him had faster horses and it seemed to the tribesmen that the daredevil could be overtaken, all the soldiers rushed to his aid. Enemies wanted to get to his scalp as much as his fellow tribesmen wanted to save him, and the sides converged in battle. The main part of the battle took place at close range, and therefore the soldiers used little bows and spears and fought with tomahawks, military clubs and beat each other with poles to count the "ku". Many received wounds and abrasions, but, as a rule, few were killed. If the warrior, around whom the battle was flaring up, lost his scalp, his comrades immediately retreated, leaving the body in the hands of the enemy, since it was no longer of interest to them. If it was possible to save him alive or protect his body from scalping, the parties separated and retreated to their previous positions. After some respite, the rider separated from the other side and everything was repeated over again. Sometimes, instead of galloping along the line, the daredevil rushed into the enemy ranks, intending to count "ku" or kill someone. Enemies immediately surrounded him and tried to kill him, although often he still managed to escape. The tribesmen immediately rushed to his rescue, and the battle simmered with special fury. If the brave man was killed, then scalped, and the body, as a rule, was cut into small pieces. In this manner, the battle could continue for most of the day, until the parties got tired and dispersed.

Return of the victorious military unit

To make it easier to resist the attacks of enemies, some tribes fortified their settlements with embankments and palisades. After the smallpox epidemic of 1837, when the numbers of the Hidats and Mandans declined sharply, they fortified their settlement called "Like a Fishing Hook" with a new palisade and installed a huge bell in it, which the Black Mouths beat every day when the gates and people opened in the morning. they released horses to pastures, went to the fields and fetch brushwood, and also in the evening, warning of the imminent closing of the gates and the need to hurry inside. After the gates were closed, all parts of the settlement were protected from the penetration of enemies and strangers, and only those who were recognized were allowed to enter the village. In case of a long siege, the hidats kept water in the bison bladders in the settlement.

Mandan villages were often attacked by nomads. Hood. J. Kathleen

The warrior is on the alert. Hood. F. Remington

There was always a danger of attack from enemies during the migration. John Stanley saw the migration of the Piegan chieftain of the Low Horn in 1853. The community stretched out across the plain in two parallel lines, and leaders and warriors rode in front, behind and along the flanks with weapons in their hands. The Blackfeet recounted that such a formation was common. The scouts drove into the hills and hills and from there surveyed the surroundings. The main column was led by the leaders with their families. Nevertheless, the Blackfeet recognized that this ideal formation was not always observed. When the Indians felt safe, no guards were posted on the flanks. If an enemy attack on the flanks occurred at such a moment, the consequences were disastrous. Especially if the attack was carefully prepared.

What is a scalp? Most often, this question is of interest to those who read books about the Indians. There is nothing surprising. After all, they often talk about the fact that during a battle, the scalp of a person is taken from a person as proof of their own bravery.

Why is it needed

It turns out that these trophies were held in high esteem even among the ancient Gauls and Scythians. So, what is the scalp cut from the skull along with the hair? North America did this not only to humiliate the enemy. The scalp was a magical attribute. It adorned the war shield and was a necessary attribute of a military celebration.

It is possible for money

In the 18th century, Americans did not question what a scalp was. They knew very well how the Indians remove it from their heads, and even contrived to use it for their own purposes. They assigned a reward for each scalp removed from members of neighboring tribes. Therefore, in pursuit of profit, the Indians helped the colonists to destroy their own kind. And they did it with their own hands. Even women and children were not spared.

Process description

Having learned what a scalp is, I want to understand how you can remove it from a person. Of course, most often this was done with the deceased. But sometimes they also scalped living people. The Indian took the hair of his victim in his hands, then with a knife cut the skin in a circle from the forehead to the back of the head. Then, resting on the shoulders of the unfortunate, pulled the skin together with the hair, like a stocking, from the back of the head. A living person from this experienced excruciating pain, from which he could lose consciousness or even die, but sometimes such people survived. After such an execution, scars remained on the head, and the hair no longer grew.

What's next

What was done with this skin, which was probably covered in fresh blood? The Indian warrior, if there was no pursuit for him, made a stop in order to process his trophy. He used a knife to scrape off the remnants of flesh from the scalp. Then he washed it and pulled it on a special structure made of branches to dry it. Then he hung it on his shield and went to the village. On the way to his dwelling, he uttered loud screams as many times as the scalps hung on his shield. The more trophies there were, the more successful the warrior was.

Not everyone is lucky

The victims of the Indians were not only white people, but also members of neighboring tribes. If such victims survived, then among some tribes they were considered outcasts and lived as hermits until their death. The scalped were not just shy about their appearance. According to Indian beliefs, they were considered not living people, but the reanimated dead. Therefore, they were avoided. They lived in caves and only went out at night. The Indians did not scalp blacks and those who committed suicide.

It is good that this barbaric tradition is a thing of the past. It is better to find out what a scalp is for informational purposes than to see it in reality.

In the twentieth century, due to technological progress in industrial sectors, diamonds began to be used more and more often. Prior to this period, the diamond was associated with expensive jewelry. In fact, it was so. But in the process of conducting various studies, scientists and specialists came to the conclusion that this gem is indispensable in other areas of human activity.

The rocket and space industry direction was no exception. With the help of diamonds, industrial laser systems and installations were designed and built. The stone was also necessary for working with metal. Unfortunately, the situation with this important, significant element was not the best for the Soviet Union of Socialist Republics.

Ural is not good

The richest deposits of precious stones (discovered) were then in the Urals. But their number was not enough to meet the needs of a huge state. The shortage of diamonds in the USSR was also associated with the peculiarities of the country's socialist system. It was not part of the world market system, which was another reason for the shortage of raw materials. In spite of everything, scientists and geologists carried out their research and believed that the search for the mineral needed to be expanded - to organize them in Yakutia. It was this region in all respects suitable for the area where there should be rich deposits of stone.

The first scientific and geological expeditions to this region were organized in the forty-ninth year of the last century. They brought a positive result, since separate deposits of stone were found. But the success was local. The discovered deposits were relatively small in size. The amount of minerals could not fully provide the state with raw materials.

By the mid-fifties, the situation had changed radically. Gradually, one after another, in a relatively short time, several impressive sources of the precious stone were discovered.

"Zarnitsa". Great, but not enough

In 1954, in the summer, another organized expedition, whose task was to search for diamond deposits, became more successful than the previous ones, although not by much.

Its participants, L. Popugaeva and F. Belikov (geologists) found the first kimberlite pipe recorded in the territory of the Soviet Union. A kimberlite pipe is a place where there are many diamond deposits. Such pipes are formed as a result of gas explosions in underground reservoirs (located at great depths). In most cases, they are shaped like a large funnel. The pipe is based on rocks, the geological features of which contribute to the formation of diamonds.

The find was named "Zarnitsa". Its discovery became significant for Larisa Popugaeva. For this achievement, she received one of the most honorable awards in the USSR - the Order of Lenin. But here, unfortunately, there was not as much stone as the state required. But there is also a positive side to the discovery. "Zarnitsa" became proof of the presence of a precious stone in Yakutia, which means that it made sense to continue the search for it. Over time, it became clear that the assumption of the geologists was correct.

Peace pipe

About a year after the discovery of the already familiar "Zarnitsa", finally, geologists managed to make another find, exactly the one that the government of the Soviet Union had been waiting for so long. In the summer of 1955, three geologists, Avdeenko, Elagina and Khabardin, found a second kimberlite pipe.

The event is important, and a rather entertaining story is connected with it. Diamond at that time was a product with the status of state importance. Accordingly, all his searches were classified as "top secret." It was not possible to openly communicate what the search results were. The radio message went to the government encrypted. The geologists turned out to be humorous. They sent the text: "We lit a pipe of peace, the tobacco is excellent."

After two years since the discovery, the field began to be actively developed. The name was given to him simple and sonorous - "Peace". Most likely, the content of the radiogram also played a role here. It was this source that made it possible for the Soviet Union to declare itself on the international-class diamond market.

Winning "Lucky"

At the same time and in the same year, another pipe was discovered by the geologist Shchukin near Zarnitsa. Only a few short days passed between the discoveries of this rich deposit and "Mir". And it was really a huge success.

In connection with a happy coincidence, the newly opened quarry was named "Udachny". Moreover, this deposit confirmed the position of the USSR in the world diamond market.

Conclusion

These important finds brought the state an annual profit of $ 1,000,000,000. Of course, the country's industry has stepped forward. It can be assumed that such events as the space flight of the first man and the dominant position in the field of astronautics in the sixties simply would not have taken place without the described finds and those people who devoted themselves to searching for diamond deposits, thereby playing a huge role in the development of the mighty state.

“Thanks to feature films and adventure books, the scalp in the minds of modern people is strongly associated with the Indians. However, scalping was not only used by North American aborigines. Moreover, before the arrival of the Europeans, many tribes did not know about such a custom. Scalping was practiced by the Muskogi and Iroquois, and then only some of them.

It is difficult to say when exactly scalping appeared - before or after the appearance of the colonists, since the custom of removing the skin from the head of a person as a trophy and a symbol of victory over him was widely used in antiquity on the Eurasian continent. The massive spread of scalping in America is due to the fact that the colonists offered generous rewards for the scalps of enemies - both Indians and their fellow tribesmen.

It is also important that they brought "convenient" weapons - steel knives (before that, the scalp and hair were removed with reed shoots). In some periods, the authorities of this or that state were ready to pay over $ 100 for a trophy! Naturally, a warrior's scalp was more expensive than a woman's, children's or elderly person's, but this stopped few of the hunters for such prey. The size of the scalp also influenced the price. Another caveat:

scalping in North America was done not only by Indians, but also by Europeans! And sometimes the Indians shuddered from the cruelty of the conquerors.

If we talk specifically about the Indians of the pre-colonial period, today there are several versions of why they scalped enemies.

1. Scalp as proof of the death of the enemy. In addition, as valuable evidence of their military exploits
parts of the arms, legs, or the whole head could protrude.

2. Scalp as the possession of the power of a slain enemy. The universal magical life force, according to legend, was in the hair. This version finds the least amount of evidence. 3. Scalp as a trophy, as recognition and respect of the tribe. Most often, they were decorated with clothes.

3. Scalp as a ritual and mythological element: it was believed that during a special ceremony and dance, the soul of the scalped person becomes the servant of the winner.

In fact, much more honorable than scalping was considered by most Indian tribes "ku" - touching the enemy. It was especially honorable to touch a living enemy in battle. Seeing how the Indians rush to the fallen warrior, the Europeans assumed that this was due to their desire to remove the scalp, although in fact it was about collecting "ku". The researchers see this as the reason for the spread of the misconception about the importance of scalping for the Indians. "

Scalping enemies

Scalping enemies in several areas of the North American continent became widespread among the Indians even before the arrival of the white people. However, this custom was not as widespread as many authors write. On the contrary, studies show that it was only part of the military ritual of the Muskogee tribes of the southeastern United States and the Iroquois peoples of the eastern United States and the lower St. Lawrence River, as well as their immediate neighbors. The artist Jacques Le Moines, who accompanied Rene de Lodeniere's French expedition to Florida in 1564, wrote about the customs of the Florida aborigines: “In battles, a fallen warrior is instantly dragged away by specially assigned people. They carry reed shoots that are sharper than any steel blade. With them, they cut the scalp to the bone in a circle, and then tear it off (along with the hair. - Auth.) ... Having done this, they dig a hole in the ground and make a fire ... Over the fire, they dry scalps until they look like parchment ... After the battle, they ... hang bones and scalps from the tips of their spears and triumphantly carry them home ... Returning from the war, Indians gather in a specially designated place. Here they bring (cut off. - Auth.) feet, hands and scalps of fallen enemies and with great solemnity attach them to high poles. " Red-skinned warriors in New England, most of the Atlantic Coast, Plains, Pacific Coast, Canadian Northwest, Arctic Region, and southern United States in the early historical period never practiced scalping enemies. Almost throughout America in those days, the main trophy was the head of the enemy.

Bison hunter scalped by Cheyenne in 1868

Only with the arrival of Europeans did scalping become more widespread. In addition to the appearance of steel knives, which greatly simplified the very process of scalping, the remuneration paid by representatives of the colonial authorities played a serious role. For example, as noted above, scalping was not known to the New England Indians until the colonists began offering rewards for the heads of enemies. Soon, the Redskins realized that bringing his scalp as proof of the murder of an enemy was less laborious than bringing his head.

A scalp strand on a cheyenne's head

Scalping was not only an invention of the North American Indians. Herodotus wrote in the 5th century. BC, that the Scythians removed the skin from the head of the fallen enemies, using very sharp daggers for this. Two generations later, Xenophon noted in his notes that after several of his people were killed on the way to the Mediterranean, their hair was removed from their heads. The mention of the existence of this custom among the Scythians is confirmed by the finds of Russian archaeologists, who discovered in the Scythian barrows three skulls with characteristic scratches around the crown, remaining after scalping, as well as the mummy of a warrior with a scalp removed from his head. The Byzantine historian Procopius wrote about the scalping of his victims by foreign mercenaries. In the books of Maccabeus, describing the atrocities and atrocities practiced against the Jews by the Syrian monarch Antiochus the Great, it is said: "The skin was ripped off the head." The Spaniards celebrated the custom of scalping their enemies among the natives of the Caribbean, Guatemala and Northern Mexico. It was also known to the natives of the Gran Chaco Territory in South America.

Robert McGee scalped by the Indians

White more than once incited the Indians to scalp their pale-faced opponents. So, in June 1775, the British government, calling on the Indians to oppose the Americans, not only supplied the warriors of all tribes from the Great Lakes to the Gulf with axes, guns and ammunition, but also announced a reward for the scalps of the Americans, which should have been brought to commanding officers in Detroit or Oswego. ... Such a tempting offer could attract even the Iroquois, who had previously solemnly vowed to remain neutral, to their side. During the same period, the South Carolina legislature began paying £ 75 for each scalp of a Native American warrior. In the early 1830s, Wichita scalps were being paid in Texas. Trouble with the Apaches in the Southwest began with the US government after a group of American scalp hunters staged a real massacre of Apache leader Juan José in 1836, flattered by the reward promised by the Governor of Sonora. In the XIX century. in Arizona, one could get up to $ 250 for an Apache scalp, and since it was almost impossible to distinguish the hair of an Apache from the hair of another red-skinned person, the bounty hunters went to Sonora and slaughtered the defenseless Mexicans.

Indian attack on the stagecoach. Hood. F. Remington

It is often mentioned that scalping an enemy is associated with harming the soul of the deceased. According to Stanley Vestal, many Sioux believed that the qualities of the killed enemy passed on to his killer, which may also indirectly refer to the custom of scalping. Richard Dodge reported that the old Cheyenne and Arapach people told him about a belief that existed in the past among all the Indians who lived between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, in which scalping the head killed the soul of the enemy. But in the 1880s. Captain William Clarke wrote about this: “I conducted special research in connection with this custom among the following tribes: Cheyenne, Arapach, Sioux, Comanche, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Wichita, Pawnee, Sauk and Fox, Oto, Iowa, Kickapu, Jutes, Siksiks, Caines, Piegans, Arikars, Hidats, Mandans, Shoshone, Bannoks, Nepers, Pen d'Oreys, Kootenis, Caddos, Ponks, Shawnee, Seminoles, Chippev (Ojibway), Crowe, Grovanthurs and Assiniboins. In none of them I could find any superstitions or fantasies that scalping a person somehow harmed his soul after death. "

Scalp at the British Museum

According to the author, the clue to the origin of this custom lies in the very manner of conducting the Indian war, where the main role was assigned to small detachments of warriors who penetrated the distant lands of hostile tribes. Upon returning home, they were to bring with them proof of the death of the enemy. Various parts of the enemy corpse were always used for victorious dances - until the end of the 19th century. they, in addition to scalps, could be severed heads, arms, legs, hands and feet. But unlike them, the scalp did not deteriorate and was more compact during a long transition to the native village. Charles Buloh, a translator for the White Land Agency, wrote: “I learned that when the war between the Sioux and the Ojibwe first broke out, disputes began to arise among the Ojibway warriors about the bravery of each of them, since in many cases the out-and-out cowards proclaimed their bravery. And so it was decided to remove scalps from the heads of enemies as proof of their valor. " In addition, in the future, for a long time, he could serve as proof of victory over the enemy, decorating weapons, shields, etc. This idea is to some extent confirmed by the phrase said by one of the Blackfeet: “We are removing scalps so that the war is tougher, and when our women and children see the scalps of their enemies, their hearts are filled with joy. "

A military shirt trimmed with strands of human hair. Sioux

The classic scalp was considered to be hair from the top of the head, which was braided in one or more braids. The first time a scalp was braided to a boy was about five years old. Despite the wide variety of hairstyles, even shaving their heads, the Indians always left a small lock of hair, called scalp. Three strands of hair were braided into a pigtail, forming a circle with a diameter of about five centimeters at the base, and, as a rule, were decorated. In addition, hair was plucked around the circle formed by the pigtail and the skin was dyed red to highlight the scalp strand. Thanks to these tricks, anyone could tell how "correct" the scalp captured by the warrior was. White contemporaries especially noted that the Indians never shave their heads completely, always leaving a scalp strand, which served as a sign of courage and a challenge to the enemy. They seemed to say to their opponents: "Try to get my scalp, if you dare."

Berlandier described the Comanche method of scalping as follows: “To remove the scalp, they turn the corpse on its stomach, grab it by the hair and cut the scalp in a circle. Then they step on the neck and tear off the scalp with a short, sharp movement. The Indians were masters of this craft. Among the Cheyenne, the most courageous form of scalping was considered to be scalping a living enemy. Pawnee scout commander Luther North spoke of an incident he witnessed. One of the Sioux warriors chased a Pawnee woman who was trying to escape to a nearby trading post, where several white men had taken refuge. Ignoring the rifle fire from the pale-faced, the Sioux galloped up to the running woman, grabbed her hair with his left hand and, without even dismounting from the horse, scalped the unfortunate woman with the knife he held in his right hand. With a war cry, the wild warrior turned his steed and sped away.

The scalping procedure itself was not fatal. The Bozeman Times of July 16, 1876, published the story of Herman Ganzio, attacked by Indians in the Black Hills. He was scalped alive but survived. According to the reporter, his head was one continuous mass of sores. Delos J. Sanbertson, some time after he safely lost his scalp, went to Laramie and tried to grow hair on his skull, however, as he complained, “no treatment has helped so far to make the hair grow in this place again”. The number of survivors of white scalping on the frontier was so great that James Robertson of Nashville, Tennessee, published in 1806 in the Philadelphia Medical and Physical Journal, Notes on Scalped Head Treatment, citing numerous cases of successful treatment. ...

The attitude to scalping among the Indian tribes was different. For example, among the Comanches, the scalp did not bring much honor, since anyone could remove it from an already killed enemy. Therefore, it was of secondary importance. But if the enemy was scalped under especially dangerous circumstances, he was highly valued. The scalp was a trophy, proof of success for the Dance of Victory. Among the warriors of the Oto tribe, according to Whitman, the right to the scalp belonged to the warrior who killed this enemy. In most other tribes, anyone could scalp a fallen enemy. Among the Assiniboins, the scalping of a personally killed enemy was highly valued, but the scalp itself was of little value. The Crowe didn’t consider scalping a thing worth mentioning at all. For them, he was just evidence of the murder of the enemy, but in no way a feat. As one of them said, "You will never hear a Crow boasting about the scalps he has taken when he recounts his deeds." Many Feats said: "The warriors of my tribe rarely took the scalps of the enemy if someone from the Crow died in the battle." The above information is quite convincing evidence that the scalp was a low-value war booty for the red-skinned fighters. He was just an emblem of victory over the enemy. The widespread belief in its value has arisen as a result of an incorrect assessment of the actions of warriors in battle by numerous white contemporaries. It is easy enough to trace why the Euro-American made such conclusions. He saw that after the fall of a killed or wounded enemy, several red-skinned horsemen rushed towards him at a gallop. They huddled around him, after which the corpse turned out to be scalped! It was difficult for a Euro-American who did not live among the Indians to understand that desperate warriors, risking their lives, tried only to be the first to touch the enemy (count the "ku"), since the Europeans did not have such a military tradition.