Below we discuss the key issues that builders need to know regarding construction. They will be useful both in the design and construction of houses.
What are horizontals?
This is an imaginary curved line, all points of which are located at the same height above the level of the Baltic Sea.
What types of building connections exist?
What marks are called black, red, working?
What is the difference between absolute and relative marks?
- Absolute elevation- a mark that is measured from the level of the Baltic Sea;
- relative elevation- measured from any conventionally taken point on the earth’s surface.
What types of waterproofing are used in the building?
How is the rigidity of a building's structural design ensured?
It is ensured by the use of connections in floor nodes, monolithic inclusions at intersections and junctions load-bearing walls, elevator shafts, staircases,.
What is a vapor barrier?
This is a layer of construction that protects overlying materials from condensation.
How is the connection between the parts of the masonry of external walls ensured?
Using ligation of sutures using alternating spoon and butt rows. Reinforcement of brick and fortan masonry with reinforcement.
What are the requirements for floors?
Durability, thermal insulation, sound insulation, ease of cleaning, should not slip, dust. In wet areas - waterproof and waterproof.
What determines the depth of the foundation?
How is the waterproofness of the roof where the drainage funnel is installed ensured?
Placement of waterproofing material under the fastening funnels.
How is the number of internal drainage funnels determined?
For this purpose, standards are used that require 1 funnel per 80 m2 of roof area. For example, 800 m2 of roofing requires 10 funnels. 
How to visually distinguish reinforcement A-I, A-II, A-III?
A1 - smooth, A3 - periodic profile, A2 - herringbone
What is concrete? Solution?
Concrete- an artificial stone material obtained as a result of hardening of a rationally selected, thoroughly mixed mixture of mineral binder, water, fillers and, if necessary, special additives.
Solution- a mixture of binder, water, fine aggregate and, if necessary, special additives.
What is concrete class? Brand of concrete?
Concrete class characterizes its compressive strength, concrete grade- indicator of frost resistance, water resistance, density.
What groups of limit states are used to calculate structures?
Limit state
refers to the state of a structure after which it can no longer be used. The calculation was carried out for group 1, for example.What loads do the designed elements bear?
March, floor and covering slab, foundation, balcony slab - bending, wall panel, pier, column - compression. 
What is working fittings? Editing room?
Mounting fittings designed for the weight of the structure. Working fittings is taken based on the actual forces.
What is a concrete protective layer? Its size?
Protective layer of concrete ensures the integrity of reinforcement and concrete and protects the former from corrosion. The size of the protective layer of concrete is taken to be no less than the diameter of the working reinforcement and no less than the standard values.
What determines the volume of the pit?
Pit volume depends on the type of soil, the depth of the foundation, the size of the building, and the depth of groundwater.
What is production?
This is the quantity of products produced per unit of time. Output expressed in natural indicators (m3 of laid concrete), as well as in cost indicators.
What works are called hidden and how are they designed?
These are works that are hidden by subsequent constructions. On hidden work an act is drawn up. Acts are entered into the production documentation journal throughout the entire construction period.
What parameters are used to select a crane?
According to three parameters:
How are removable lifting devices selected?
You should choose so that some lifting devices could be lifted various types prefabricated elements, because Frequent changes of fixtures reduce labor productivity and lead to downtime for the crane and installers. 
Basic storage rules.
Most prefabricated elements should be stored on illuminated open areas, planned taking into account water flow and sprinkled with crushed stone. The number of elements stored in warehouses must correspond to the calculation, that is, there is no point in importing all the materials at once; this can cause confusion, take a lot of time and significantly increase the area warehouses Parts stock depends on delivery conditions. Reinforced concrete structures are stored in on-site warehouses in the crane operating area: heavier elements are placed closer to the supply points, lighter ones - further away, because they can be lifted at a greater reach of the crane hook. The storage position should be close to the design:
- panels in cassettes; beams and trusses on pyramids; columns, crossbars, slabs in stacks up to 2500 mm high, on spacers placed vertically, with hinges up, marked towards the passages;
- passage width is at least 700 mm. transverse passages should be located every 2 rows, longitudinal ones - every 25 m.
Why are gaskets used during storage and for what reasons are they installed?
To prevent cracking and molding of structures.
Name the mason's technological and control tools.
- TO technological tool include a trowel, a hammer-pick, a mortar shovel and a jointer.
- TO test instrument tape measure, folding meter, plumb line, mooring cord, square, rule, level, order.
What determines the quality of masonry?
From the category and skill of the mason, from the brands of mortar, brick, and climatic conditions. Determine the types of masonry in your project. For example, the masonry is multi-row with ligation of butt seams every 3 spoon stitches. 
How is the quality of the roof controlled?
Carry out coverage control using water and according to acts for hidden work (all layers), a test cut of all layers of the roof. 
How is the strength gain of concrete controlled?
Using destructive and non-destructive methods:
- destructive control- a cube is cut out and tested for compressive strength.
- non-destructive testing- using electronic devices (resonance, ultrasonic pulse methods; holographic introscopy).
What is called pile failure? Collateral?
Failure is the depth of immersion of a pile from one blow. Failure is defined as the average of a series of strikes called bail.
What are the dimensions and weight of the brick?
- clay brick:
- Sand-lime brick: 250x120x65 (3.9 kg);
- Hollow ceramic stones: 250x120x138 (5.8 kg).
What is the difference between the “press” and “butt” methods of laying bricks?
The pressing method is used when working with hard mortar. It consists in raking the mortar in vertical joints and at the same time holding it with a trowel. It is used in the construction of structures that bear significant loads, as well as in the laying of lightweight walls.
The touching method is used when working with plastic mortar. In this case, the mortar in the vertical joints is raked with brick. Used when laying the backfill and the verst part of the walls “in the wasteland”.
What is called a plot? What determines the size of the plot?
Delyanka called the area that is allocated to a unit to perform any shift task. The length of the plot on which the link works, the master during the construction of the facility is determined by the formula: L=T/aNh
Plot length= number of people x 8 hours/wall thickness, tier height (1-1.2m) and time standard per 1 m3 of masonry. 
How are floor panels of room size delivered and installed?
Up to 6 m long - used for transportation flatbed cars, which have a carrying capacity of 5-12t; length up to 12 m. On semi-trailers with a load capacity of 7.5-25 tons. Installation of larger dimensional elements is carried out tower cranes.
What labor safety measures are provided for in the construction plan?
The construction plan must provide construction safety measures. First of all, this is a properly designed construction plan, on which there are sidewalks, where the movement of workers intersects with roads for cars as little as possible.
The red marks are the marks of the planning plane. They are determined, like black ones, at the nodes of a coordinate grid drawn on the terrain plan.
In accordance with the assignment, the site planning plane can be horizontal or have a slope. In the first case, the red marks within the entire area will be the same, in the second - different, decreasing in the direction of the slope of the planning plane. In order to reduce volumes earthworks the slope of the planning plane must be coordinated with the direction of the natural slope. terrain. Layout planes and their slope can be specified or required to be established taking into account certain conditions.
Methodology for determining red marks provided: position of the planning plane not specified, it must be selected from the condition of zero balance of earth masses; slope the planning plane is specified. With zero balance of earth masses on the site, the volume of the excavation is equal to the volume of the embankment. In this case, if the planning plane is horizontal (i= 0.00), then the red marks of all points on the site are equal to the weighted average black mark N avg. V.. This mark is determined using method of static moments relative to the zero horizon and is used in cases where the site is divided into elementary sections of various size configurations. It is found by the formula:
Where h cr– the average black mark within a separate elementary figure of the site (determined by the known black marks of its corner points);
– frequency coefficient of the i-th figure, which is proportional to the area of the elementary figure.
Method of arithmetic mean values of marks is a special case of the previous one, when the elementary sections have the same configuration and size.
In this case, the above formula will take the following form:
Where n– number of elementary figures.
In construction practice, site planning on a horizontal plane occurs in rare cases, since due to the need to drain atmospheric water, the planning plane is given a slope of at least 0.002. Depending on local conditions, the slope can be single-slope, directed perpendicular to one of the axes of the site, double-slope, or directed at an angle to the axis of the site.
When the terrain is calm, use method of squares, having less labor intensity of calculations, the planning area is divided into a grid of squares and the average mark N avg.. , is determined by the formula:
(2.3)
In this case, the resulting weighted average mark N avg. V. equal to the red mark at the center of gravity of the array. It can be tentatively assumed that the center of gravity of the array coincides with the center of gravity of the horizontal projection of the area.
Triangle method used in difficult terrain. For this case the formula looks like:
where is the sum of the black marks of such nodes of the planning grid in which 1, 2, 3, 4 or 6 corners of elementary figures respectively converge;
n- number of squares.
We outline the line of the greatest slope of the projected plane, which is drawn perpendicular to most horizontal lines and directed in the direction of the fall of the latter.
From the found weighted average mark, we lower the perpendicular to the line of the largest slope. This perpendicular defines a line of equal marks. From the corner extreme points of our grid of squares we lower the perpendiculars to the line of the largest slope. We determine the red marks of these points:
H k = N mean. +x×i (2.5)
H k = N mean. -x×i
where N s.v. – red mark defining the planning plane;
x - distance in meters from the projection of the design point to the projection
nodal point along the line of the largest slope;
i - terrain slope.
Signs (+) or (-) are placed depending on the position of the nodal point relative to the line of equal marks. By interpolation, according to the above method, we determine the remaining red marks of all squares. Red marks are calculated to the nearest 0.01 m and are written in red above the black marks (see Figure 2.3).
Rice. 2.3 - Location of black, red and working marks on the site plan.
In our example, the sequence for determining red marks is as follows:
1. Determine (if it is not specified) the weighted average mark.
First, we determine the average value of the black mark of each i – its square.
(2.6)
2. Determine the weighted average elevation of the entire section:
(2.7)
3. Through point H avg. we set the line of the largest slope, which we draw perpendicular to the horizontal line (Figure 2.4).
4. From the corner points of the squares of the coordinate grid, we lower the perpendiculars to the line of the largest slope and determine the distance X from point H avg. to the desired node point (using the example of node A, Fig. 2.4). The distance is determined by measuring with a ruler on the site plan in decimeters.
Figure 2.4 - Scheme for determining red marks
5. If the slope is not specified according to the assignment, then we determine it using the following method, Fig. 2.5.
We determine the profile of the terrain area, which passes through the intersection points of the line of the largest slope along the edges of the area and through H avg..
Rice. 2.5 - Profile of the area along the line of the greatest slope.
In accordance with the profile of the site, we determine the slope:
Where i– slope of the planning plane;
l- a distance equal to the length of the segment between the extreme values of the black marks based on the profile of the site;
H 1 and H 2– values of black marks at a point X intersections.
6. Determine the slope, which for our example will be equal to:
7. Determine the value of the red mark in corner A.
8. Similarly, we determine the values of the red marks in other nodes
3.3 Determination of black marks.
In this case, the marks of the earth's surface are determined, which will be indicated in black, and the planning marks, which will be indicated in red (red marks).
We divide the designed construction site measuring 400x400m into squares with a side of 100m due to the calmness of the terrain.
According to the site plan, the black marks of the vertices of the squares in meters to hundredths are calculated in the contour lines of the paths by linear integration.
3.4 Determination of red and blue marks.
The design of planning red marks in the corners of the squares is carried out taking into account the specified planning slopes and can be determined:
1) based on the conditions for obtaining a zero soil balance;
2) from the given condition of obtaining certain marks at some points on the site.
After determining the “black” marks in the corners of the squares, the required cutting or backfilling depths (working marks) are found at these points in order to obtain the specified character of the site layout. Knowing these depths, you can calculate the volume of cutting or filling in each square.
The planning marks of the tops of the squares are determined taking into account the specified slopes
Hpl = Ho + i1*I1 + i2*I2
Ground surface before leveling
The (+) sign in front of the work mark value means that soil cutting needs to be done at this point; the sign (-) indicates the need to make an embankment at a given point.
The calculated black and red working marks are applied at the tops of the squares of the leveling grid.
N slave H cr
3.5 Construction of the zero line.
The zero work lines are the line of intersection of the planning surfaces with the terrain, separating the embankment zone on the site from the excavation zone.
3 free
2 arbitrary points through which it will pass
units zero line
3.6 Determination of volumes of embankments and excavations.
The volume of soil in each square prism is determined as the product of the base area and the average working elevation:
a)V us =a(1+b)/2(h1+h2)/4;
V cut =a(11+b1)/2(h3+h4)/4
b)Vus =bI/-h1/3;
V cut =(a-bI/2)(h2+h3+h4)/5;
Table of calculation results.
| Geometric volumes | Soil volumes taking into account residual loosening | |||||
| Excavations, m 3 | Discrepancy, % | Discrepancy, % | ||||
| Main volumes | 228101 | 247267 | 8,4 | 239506 | 247267 | 3,2 |
| Volumes in slopes | 2853 | 2466 | 2996 | 2466 | ||
| Total | 230954 | 249733 | 8,1 | 242502 | 249733 | 3,0 |
3.7 Finding the volume of soil in slopes.
The volume of soil in the slopes located along the perimeter of the site can be determined using the approximate formula:
V open =±(h/n)² Z*m/2, where
h is the sum of all working marks located along the perimeter,
n- number of marks,
z is the length of the base of all embankment slopes,
m is the slope coefficient.
Vв= - ((0.4+1.85+2.8+3.75+4.7+4.2+3.7+3.2+2.2+1.7+1.2+0 .25)/12)² * 1052*0.75/2=2466
Vn= ((1.5+0.55+2+2.5+3+3.5+3.65+3.5+2.8+2.1+1.4+0.7)/12 )²*1108*1/2=2853
... ; P4 = 8 × 45.26 = 362 m3 / shift. Based on the known volumes V, the timing of work on the construction site T, as well as the shift productivity Ps and the shift k, of earth-moving and transport machines, their required number in the set N is determined by the formula: . The duration of excavation work is indicated in the task in working days for two-shift work. After rounding the quantity...
655 2,562 3,767 Solid oil 1,545 4,586 17,934 24,065 Kerosene - 1,310 5,124 6,434 Wiping materials 0,515 0,655 2,562 3,732 11. TECHNOLOGY OF EARTH WORKS Technology of earthworks work depends mainly on the type of foundation, soil composition and groundwater level. For columnar foundations make round holes with vertical walls. They are resistant to collapse even...
Designing a vertical layout scheme urban territory is carried out for the fundamental coordination of structural elements master plan with the terrain, with rivers, streams and other drains, with the road system, railway lines, bridges and other overpasses, with dams and other engineering structures.
is the first stage of the high-rise solution of the city territory when developing a feasibility study or master plan of the city. The development of the scheme is carried out using the method of design (red) marks for individual planning elements - roads, paths, sites (Figure 1).
The essence of this method is that on the general plan diagram, made on a geodetic basis with existing horizontal lines or marks, design marks are applied that characterize the planned relief and determine the organization of surface runoff of rain and melt water. This method makes it possible to determine the elevation, slope and altitude position of the designed relief. To determine these characteristics, black marks, red marks and work marks are used.
Black marks correspond to the marks of the existing relief.
Red or project marks- marks of the transformed relief.
Working marks– the difference between the design red mark and the black mark of the existing terrain
Black marks are determined on the topographic plan at the corresponding characteristic points:
along the boundaries of the object (red lines),
at points of entry and entry into the territory,
at corner points and intersection points of axes at road intersections and path intersections,
at points of change in longitudinal relief (changes in slopes) along the axes or sides of driveways, roads, paths and alleys,
at the points of characteristic bends of the tracks on their axes or sides,
in the centers of platforms in the shape of a circle, oval, rectangle and other geometric shapes, or at the corner points of the platforms and at the junction points of the platform and the track;
All indicated black marks on the drawing of the relief organization diagram are numbered and applied below the outlined line, at each characteristic point.
Black marks at designated characteristic points are determined by interpolation.
Finding a mark on the surface. If the black score lies on the black horizontal line, then its value corresponds to the elevation of this horizontal line. The elevation of a point lying between the black horizontal lines is determined by the formula:
Нх=Нв+(На-Нв) , Where
Nv- score below the underlying horizontal line
On- score above the horizontal line
L- distance between horizontal lines (laying)
l- the distance from the desired point to the underlying horizontal line.
The distances between points are taken according to the plan in accordance with the scale.
To solve this problem graphically, perpendiculars are reconstructed from points A and B in opposite directions, on which the excesses of the points are plotted on an arbitrary scale On And Nb relatively Nx. The required point lies at the intersection of the line Na Hb with the segment that passes through the ends of the perpendiculars (Fig. 2).
The slope of the surface between two points is equal to the ratio of the difference in the elevations of these points to the horizontal distance between them:
i = (Na-Hv) / L.
The resulting value is usually rounded to thousandths.
The direction of the longitudinal slope of the street is shown using arrows along the streets and driveways from higher to lower elevations. The value of the longitudinal slope of the street is placed above the arrow, and the distance between the points limiting the section of the street with this slope is below it. Then the compliance of the actual longitudinal slope with the standard one is checked on all elements of the street and road and path network. If the resulting longitudinal slope corresponds to the permissible values, it is rounded to thousandths (in ppm) and accepted as the design one. If the existing slope does not meet regulatory requirements, then when determining the design (red) marks, it is corrected and a design slope is assigned, which is plotted on the drawing above the extension arrow (Fig. 3).
Red marks are applied on the drawing of the relief organization diagram, at the corresponding characteristic points, on top of the extension line above the black mark. In this case, red marks should be assigned in such a way that the working marks, if possible, do not exceed ± 0.5 m.
For the city's road network, the nature of the transverse profiles and the maximum longitudinal slope are designed in accordance with the design parameters of streets and roads. Design longitudinal and transverse slopes for elements of the road and path network of parks are established in accordance with, depending on the type of planning element.
For asphalt and cement pavements, the minimum transverse slopes are 15-25 °/oo. In flat areas (less than 4 °/oo), when laying streets and roads, their roadways are designed along a tray by constructing a saw-tooth longitudinal profile, with rainwater wells of the drainage network placed in low places (Fig. 4).
In Fig. 5 shows the stages of adoption final decision when developing a vertical layout scheme.
The working estimate indicates the amount of cutting or adding soil at a given point. It is applied to the left of the leader line on the drawing of the relief organization diagram, at the corresponding characteristic points.
Thus, having determined the red (design) marks at all characteristic points, assigning the permissible slopes of all elements of the street-road and road-path network, in accordance with regulatory requirements, the design high-rise frame of the facility territory is formed.
The excavation works for vertical site leveling include:
1) removal of the plant layer of soil;
2) development of excavations;
3) formation of embankments;
4) moving soil from the excavation to the embankment of the site;
5) transportation of excess soil off site;
6) leveling of soil delivered by transport vehicles;
7) soil compaction;
8) layout of the site surface;
9) planning of site slopes;
10) development of soil for the foundation of the structure.
Vertical layout sites are drawn to a given elevation, determined from the condition of zero balance of soil masses, in which the volume of soil in excavations and embankments is equal to each other.
The assignment for developing an earthworks project specifies a construction site plan measuring 200˟150 m with contour lines; we calculate the volume of planning work using the square method. To do this, we divide the given area with a grid of squares with a side of 50 m, and the condition of passing through the square is no more than two horizontal lines (Fig. 1).
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Rice. 1. Site diagram
Determine the black marks of the vertices of the squares. Black marks are marks of the natural terrain of the vertices of the squares, which are found by interpolation accurate to the second digit. To do this, draw a straight line between complex horizontal lines through the top of the square at the shortest distance (perpendicular). According to the accepted scale of the construction site, on the perpendicular we find the distance between the horizontal and the top of the square. Knowing the excess between the horizontal lines, we find the black mark using the formula:
where is the elevation of the lesser horizontal line, m; - horizontal pitch, m; – distance from the adjacent horizontal line with the lowest elevation to the top of the square, m; – minimum distance between horizontal lines along the perpendicular, m.
The average level elevation (subject to a zero balance of earth masses and the use of the square prism method) is determined by the formula:
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Red (design) marks of the tops of the squares are determined taking into account the slope of the construction site according to the formula:
where is the average surface elevation, m; – specified slope of the site; – the distance from the tops of the squares to the conditional axis of symmetry of the construction site.
The slope of the construction site is formed by rotating the horizontal plane of the site at a mark around an axis located in the center of the site by the amount of a given slope in the direction of decreasing the black marks.
When finding the red marks, it is necessary to pay attention to the increase or decrease of the design marks relative to the horizontal plane with the mark.
Working marks at the vertices of the squares are determined by the formula:
where is the red mark, m; – black mark, m.
We record black, red and working marks at the top of the square according to the following scheme: the plus sign means an embankment, the minus sign means a recess.
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The graphical method of finding zero points consists in large-scale plotting of segments, which are working marks with opposite signs, in connecting their ends with a straight segment; the intersection of this segment with the side of the square forms the zero point. Connecting the zero points to each other with straight line segments gives a line of zero works 0-0.
A diagram of the site with marked marks and a line of zero works is shown on sheet 1 of the graphic part of the project.
The calculation of black, red and working marks is summarized in Table 1. Table 1 - Sheet for calculating site elevations
| Top of the square | Black mark | Red mark | Working mark | ||
| Formula | Meaning | Formula | Meaning | ||
| A1 | 47,64 |  | 47,3 |  | -0,34 |
| A2 | 47,85 | | 47,3 | | -0,55 |
| A3 | 47,82 |  | 47,3 | | -0,52 |
| A4 | 47,64 |  | 47,3 | | -0,34 |
| A5 | 47,26 | | 47,3 | | 0,04 |
| B1 | 47,63 | | 47,6 | | -0,03 |
| B2 | 47,64 | | 47,6 | | -0,04 |
| B3 | 48,00 | | 47,6 | | -0,4 |
| B4 | 47,74 | | 47,6 | | -0,14 |
| B5 | 47,38 | | 47,6 | | 0,22 |
| B1 | 47,60 | | 47,9 | | 0,3 |
| B2 | 47,84 | | 47,9 | | 0,06 |
| B3 | 48,00 | | 47,9 | | -0,1 |
| B4 | 47,89 | | 47,9 | | 0,01 |
| B5 | 47,54 | | 47,9 | | 0,36 |
| G1 | 47,28 | | 48,2 | | 0,92 |
| G2 | 47,64 | | 48,2 | | 0,56 |
| G3 | 47,75 | | 48,2 | | 0,45 |
| G4 | 47,73 | | 48,2 | | 0,47 |
| G5 | 47,35 | | 48,2 | | 0,85 |