In the new conditions of the post-bipolar world, the United States, like other actors on the world stage that claim to be a great power, in global strategic terms is faced not so much with military-political, but rather with economic, social, scientific and technical challenges. It is known that it is in these areas that they often lose the race in competition with the most dynamic subjects of the world community. An example is the new economic giants, which are not only catching up with the United States, but in a number of areas are ahead of them. In the sphere of economics and scientific and technological progress, the EEC, Germany, Japan, and China are rapidly moving forward.

American model market economy turns out, for example, for East Asian countries with an organic socio-cultural tradition less attractive than Western European models (Swedish, German, French, etc.), for which solidaristic, paternalistic elements are stronger, the state plays a greater role in determining social and economic strategies . The American idea today is being challenged by a resurgent European idea, the Japanese model, the model of the newly industrialized countries, as well as other competing models that have a significant impact on the nature of the relationships between various regional centers of economic, sociocultural and political power.

As former NATO Secretary General Lord Carrington rightly noted, in the period between the Battle of Waterloo (1815) and the outbreak of the First World War, “Europe not only played a role in world politics, but itself to a large extent personified this world politics.”

Indeed, the world wars can serve as milestones in the evolution of Europe's role in international relations. First World War 1914-1918- The imperialist war between two groupings of capitalist powers - the Triple Alliance and the Entente - ended in the defeat of Germany and its allies. World War II 1939-1945- the war unleashed by fascist Germany, fascist Italy and militaristic Japan for the purpose of a new redistribution of the world also ended in the defeat of its instigators. At the same time, under militarism(from the French militarisme) understand the system of political, economic and ideological means used by the ruling circles of a state to build up its military power.

As you know, before World War II, Europe was the main center of world politics. But it emerged from this war extremely weakened, and in the first one and a half to two post-war decades it was assigned the role of a kind of field of confrontation between the two superpowers. Commenting on this situation, the Polish historian O. Khaletsky, not without some exaggeration, wrote in 1950 that the history of Europe has ended and is now being replaced by the history of the Atlantic Community.

However, further developments showed that the old continent has a future. The most far-sighted representatives of the European peoples spoke out for a united Europe, united for the optimal realization of the goals and aspirations of all its nations and peoples. “The unity of Europe,” said German Chancellor K. Adenauer in 1954, “was the dream of a few. It became hope for many. Today it is a necessity for all of us. It is necessary for our security, for our freedom, for our existence as a nation and as a spiritual and creative community of peoples.” So the idea gradually gained strength European integration– the economic and political unification of most European countries, leading to the creation of the European Union (EU).

We must also not forget that after the Second World War, for well-known reasons, the image of Europe, the European idea itself, became somewhat dimmed. If in late XIX V. it seemed that Europe dominated the whole world, but now, wrote the German philosopher K. Jaspers in 1949, “she retreated to America and Russia; The fate of Europe now depends on their policy - unless Europe manages to unite at the last minute and turns out to be strong enough to remain neutral when the destructive storms of a new world war break out over our planet.”

In this context, in the post-war decade, much was said about the fact that Europe had already lost its self-awareness, the will to preserve its identity, that Europe was sick and its illness was “neurotic” and, therefore, “moral” in nature. In the late 70s - early 80s. they started talking about “Eurosclerosis” and “Europessimism”. Commenting on these sentiments, the editor-in-chief of the magazine Neue Gesellschaft, Glotz, wrote in 1985 that if Europe does not come together in the near future, “if the technical and political-economic changes of the 70s are not taken into account, then the concept of “Europe” will will lose its spiritual content and Europe will represent only a small piece of land on the western edge of Asia.” In this situation, he said, by the fiftieth anniversary of Yalta, that is, the signing of the Yalta-Potsdam agreements, Europe will turn into a kind of museum for American, Russian, Japanese and, perhaps, even Chinese tourists.

However, in the same year former minister Foreign relations of France, R. Dumas published an article with the characteristic title “Ending Europessimism,” which touched on some political and economic problems of Western Europe. He believes that there is no reason for a pessimistic view of its development, and justifies the idea that the United States cannot be considered an absolute model, since the “European model of a soft response” to emerging problems has its merits compared to “American rudeness and unpredictability.”

The validity of R. Dumas’s position was evidenced by the fact that already in that period there were visible symptoms of the revival of the optimistic faith of Europeans in their destiny and destiny, the strengthening of independence and the increasingly assertive identity of Europe. While maintaining its special mentality and its inherent spirit, Europe plays important role V modern world. Despite the obvious differences between the regions, countries, and peoples of Europe, they are united by something in common - this is, first of all, a commonality of historical destinies, value systems, cultural heritage, etc. It is these phenomena, as rightly emphasized in the book “Metamorphoses of Europe,” that “make it possible to interpret Europe as a cultural and historical community with a single cultural and genetic code, with a characteristic sense of self and self-knowledge of Europeans.”

The paradox is that the activities of the EU, on the one hand, reduce the scope of the sovereignty of its member national states, and on the other hand, make this sovereignty more durable, since the formal legal restrictions imposed by it are compensated by political aspects, in particular, the establishment bond of mutual responsibility.

During " cold war“Especially in the first decades after World War II, Western Europe valued the United States as a political and military counterweight to the Soviet Union, while not at all wanting to become an instrument of Washington’s global policy. She opposed the globalization of NATO's activities, mixing its interests as a regional alliance with the interests of the United States as a world superpower. In the last two or three decades, Europe, as it increased its economic, scientific and technological potential, as well as expanded and deepened integration processes in the EEC, acquired more and more weight and independence. This was especially evident in the fact that during the 70-80s, in relations with the United States, Europe increasingly confidently moved from relations typical, as they say, of the relationship between “big” and “younger brothers” to relations of equal partners. The Europeanization of European politics manifested itself from time to time in some opposition from European countries to the harsh American policy towards Soviet Union, in expanding your own line of dialogue with him.

Leading figures in European politics gradually realized that, having restored its economic and military-political power in the 60-70s, Europe in the modern world would play the role of one of several centers of world politics. Moreover, in the multipolar world of the existing giants (USA, Japan, China) and those that may arise in the future, Europe can defend its interests, being united in the most important areas: economic, technological, security, etc.

Based on an understanding of this reality, European countries developed and systematically implemented a strategy to restore European priorities and the status of Europe corresponding to its weight and influence in the world community. The trend towards the revival of Europe became especially obvious with the unfolding of the processes of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. If quite recently, in the 70s, the thesis about the decline and decline of Europe, the American challenge, etc. was widely discussed in intellectual circles of the West, then since the beginning of the 80s they began to talk more and more confidently about the revival of Europe, a new European identity, new European dynamism, etc.

Many leading figures in European countries began to increasingly advocate for further political integration and, consequently, the assignment of state powers and functions to supranational bodies. Thus, speaking at the European Parliament in Strasbourg on October 23, 1985, R. von Weizsäcker complained about the insufficient powers of the European Parliament. Strengthening its role, von Weizsäcker said, is necessary because the European Community “must be not only an association of democratic states, but also a community of citizens, i.e. democratic community." And “democracy is legitimized through parliament.” Therefore, he argued, the European Community should have the same parliament as those existing in individual EEC member countries.

And on the eve of the summit meeting of EU member states in Maastricht in December 1991, almost all political parties in Germany welcomed initiatives on issues related to intentions to form a common foreign policy and political security for the future of the European Union. Moreover, they saw the ultimate goal of such a course in the creation of the United States of Europe.

The increasing tilt towards the Europeanization of European policy is increasingly evident in the build-up of the so-called “European dimension” of defense both within NATO and outside it. Europeans are increasingly expressing their desire to break away from Washington's one-man rule. They express their readiness to bear greater burden and responsibility in resolving conflicts and accordingly increase their role in the bloc and in the international arena. Considerations have been expressed regarding the advisability of dismantling the old structures of the alliance from the Cold War era in order to avoid discontent with Russia in the event of its expansion to the east. This line was clearly manifested, in particular, at the forum of the alliance member countries in Berlin in June 1996.

An increasingly important role in this context is given to the Western European Union (WEU), which is a military-political alliance of Western European countries and is considered as the “European pillar of NATO.” In this capacity, he plays the role of a kind of link between NATO and the European Union. After the Maastricht Agreements of 1992 on the formation of the European Union, the WEU became, as it were, an integral part of the EU, its defense structure. In December 1994, NATO officially endorsed the WEU's efforts to build a European identity in the security field. Work is currently underway to create a regional tactical missile defense (BMD) system designed to protect the European countries of the North Atlantic Alliance from possible missile attacks from third countries. With this development of events, NATO is prescribed the role of not the only, but one of the two pillars of European security.

The formation and functioning of the institution of joint foreign and security policy within the WEU helps to reduce the possibility of an individual state within the EU/WEU pursuing a separate policy that is contrary to the security interests of all members of the union. This situation serves, among other things, as a factor of “taming” and a certain neutralization of the possible negative consequences of the growing power and influence of Germany. In Europe they understand that a united Germany contains the knot of many European contradictions, an attempt to resolve which can lead to acute conflicts.

In the same context, the steps of influential forces in the region towards the creation of common Western European nuclear forces, independent of the United States, should be considered. Thus, back in 1959, F. Malley, who served as Secretary of State for Defense in the British Labor government, proposed creating a united European strategic nuclear force to overcome the obvious dangers of nuclear anarchy. The main objectives of the proposed structure were, firstly, to enable all WEU member countries to participate in the development of nuclear policy and, secondly, to prevent the danger of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the associated waste of resources.

Such calls became especially frequent after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Thus, the former chairman of the EU Commission, J. Delors, said in January 1991: “I cannot get rid of the thought that if one fine day the EU becomes a very strong political union, nuclear weapons may be transferred to this political power. It is clear that nuclear solidarity lies at the end of the road to European solidarity.”

These trends became increasingly clear and convincing as 1993 approached, when the Treaty on European Union came into force. It was high quality new stage, from the point of view of European integration. It is noteworthy that one of the consistent adherents of the idea of the American century, S. Huntington, noted that while all over the world people are jostling in queues at the doors of American consulates in the hope of obtaining an immigrant visa, in Brussels entire countries lined up outside the doors of the EU, seeking entry into it.

“A federation of democratic, wealthy, socially diverse, mixed-economy countries,” he wrote, “could emerge as a powerful force on the world stage. If the next century is not an American century, then it is most likely that it will be a European century. The key to world leadership that shifted westward across the Atlantic at the beginning of the twentieth century may shift back eastward a century later.”

In this way, Europe retains its potential. From this point of view, the thoughts of those peoples and countries that, after the collapse of the Eastern bloc and totalitarianism, rushed “to Europe” were dictated not only by its geographical proximity, but no less by the fact that for many of them it becomes a “city on a hill” ”, a role that the United States has single-handedly claimed for generations. It should be added that the end of the Cold War put an end to such an anomalous phenomenon as the division of Europe by the Iron Curtain into two hostile camps. In fact, the countries of Central and of Eastern Europe literally reunited with Western Europe. The very concepts of “Eastern Europe” and “Central Europe” again acquired their original political-geographical and geopolitical meanings.

General characteristics of foreign Europe................................................... ................................ 3

1. Territory, borders, position.................................................... ................................................... 3

2. Natural conditions and resources.................................................... ........................................................ .. 4

3. Population: reproduction, migration, national composition, urbanization.................. 5

4. Economy: place in the world, differences between countries.................................................... .................... 7

5. Industry: main sectors................................................. ........................................... 8

6. Agriculture: three main types.................................................... ...................................... eleven

7. Transport: main highways and hubs.................................................... ..................................... 13

8. Science and finance: research parks and banking centers.................................... 14

9. Recreation and tourism: the main tourist region of the world.................................... ................... 14

Introduction

Foreign (in relation to the CIS countries) Europe occupies an area of 5.1 million km 2 with a population of 500 million people (1995). There are about 40 sovereign states here, connected by common historical destinies and close political, economic and cultural relations. Foreign Europe is one of the centers of world civilization, the birthplace of great geographical discoveries, industrial revolutions, urban agglomerations, and international economic integration. And although, as you already know, the era of “Eurocentrism” is a thing of the past, this region still occupies a very important place in world politics and economics.

General characteristics of foreign Europe

1. Territory, borders, position.

The territory of foreign Europe extends from north to south (from Spitsbergen to Crete) for 5 thousand km, and from west to east for more than 3 thousand km. Among European countries there are more and less large ones, but most of them are relatively small.

The economic and geographical position of foreign European countries is determined by two main features.

Firstly, the neighboring position of these countries in relation to each other. With a relatively small territory, its small “depth” and good transport “passability”, these countries either directly border or are separated by short distances. In addition, their borders run primarily along natural boundaries that do not create significant obstacles to transport connections.

Secondly, the coastal position of the vast majority of countries, many of which are located close to the busiest sea routes. In the western part of the region there is no place more than 480 km from the sea, in the eastern part - 600 km. The whole life of Great Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece has been closely connected with the sea since ancient times, “the daughter of the sea” - this can be said about each of them.

Political map of the region throughout the 20th century. underwent major changes three times: after the first and second world wars and in last years(the unification of Germany, the acquisition of independence by the Baltic countries, the collapse of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, changes in the social system in Eastern European countries).

In foreign Europe there are both republics and monarchies, both unitary and federal states.

2. Natural conditions and resources.

The natural prerequisites for the industry of foreign Europe were formed under the great influence of the location of mineral resources. However, their composition in the northern (platform) and southern (folded) parts of the region differs significantly.

In the northern part, both ore minerals associated with the Baltic Shield and the Hercynian fold zone, as well as fuel minerals, “tied” primarily to the sedimentary cover of the platform and its marginal troughs, are widespread.

Among the coal basins, the Ruhr in Germany and the Upper Silesian in Poland stand out, among the oil and gas basins - the North Sea, among the iron ore basins - the Lorraine in France and Kiruna in Sweden.

In the southern part, ore deposits of both igneous and sedimentary (bauxite) origin predominate, but the reserves of fuel resources here are much smaller. This tectonic structure of the territory largely explains the “incompleteness” of the set of minerals in individual countries.

The hydropower resources of foreign Europe are quite large, but they occur mainly in the regions of the Alps, Scandinavian and Dinaric mountains.

Natural prerequisites for Agriculture region are relatively favorable and have been widely used for many centuries. As a result, the reserves for expanding cultivated lands have almost been exhausted, and the “load” on them is increasing. Therefore, small coastal countries, and especially the Netherlands, continue to attack the coastal areas of the seas.

In the Netherlands, over the course of many centuries, almost 1/3 of the entire territory of the country has been reclaimed from the sea with the help of dams and dams.

No wonder there is a saying here: “God created the earth, and the Dutch created Holland.” The drainage of Lake IJsselmeer, which was previously a sea bay, and the implementation of the so-called “Delta Plan”, which provides for complete protection of the coast, are being completed.

The agroclimatic resources of the region are determined by its position in the temperate zone, and in the south - in the subtropical zone. In the Mediterranean, sustainable agriculture requires artificial irrigation. The most irrigated land is in Italy and Spain.

Sweden and Finland have the greatest natural prerequisites for forestry, where typical forest landscapes predominate: forests cover lowlands and hills, the banks of rivers and lakes, and approach populated areas. No wonder people say: “Finland without a forest is like a bear without hair.”

Foreign Europe also has large and diverse natural and recreational resources.

3. Population: reproduction, migration, national composition, urbanization.

Recently, the population of foreign Europe has begun to increase very slowly. As you already know, this is explained by the fact that the reproduction of the region’s population is characterized by a difficult demographic situation. In some countries there is even a natural population decline. At the same time, the age composition of the population is changing, and the proportion of older people is growing.

All this led to a sharp change in the region’s share in the global system of external population migrations. Having been the main center of emigration since the Great Geographical Discoveries, foreign Europe has become the world's main center of labor immigration. Now there are 12 - 13 million foreign workers here, a significant part of whom are not citizens, but temporary guest workers (in German, “guest workers”).

In terms of national composition, the population of foreign Europe is relatively homogeneous: the vast majority of the 62 peoples of the region belong to the Indo-European language family. At the same time, related languages of the Slavic, Romance, and Germanic groups have significant similarities. The same is true for the languages of the Uralic family. However, the ethnic map of the region, which has evolved over thousands of years, is not so simple. Along with single-national ones, there are many states with a complex national composition, in which there has recently been an aggravation of interethnic relations; Yugoslavia can serve as an example of this kind.

In all countries of foreign Europe, the dominant religion is Christianity. In Southern Europe, Catholicism sharply predominates, in Northern Europe - Protestantism; and in the Middle they are in different proportions. The world center of Catholicism is located in Rome - the Vatican.

Foreign Europe is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Moreover, the distribution of the population in it is primarily determined by the geography of cities. The level of urbanization here is one of the highest in the world: on average, 73%, and in some countries, more than 80% and even 90% of the total population live in cities. The total number of cities is measured in many thousands, and their network is very dense. Gradually, over thousands of years, a Western European type of city emerged, the roots of which go back to the times of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages.

A characteristic feature of the urbanization of foreign Europe is a very high concentration of population in big cities and urban agglomerations, of which there are more than in the United States and Japan combined. The largest of them are London, Paris and Rhine-Ruhr. In the 70s After a period of rapid growth of cities and agglomerations, an outflow of population began from their centers (nuclei), first to near and far suburbs, and then to more distant small towns and rural areas (“green wave”). As a result, the number of residents in the central areas of London, Paris, Hamburg, Vienna, Milan and many other cities either stabilized or even began to decline. This process is called suburbanization in science.

According to forecasts, the level of urbanization in the region by the end of the 20th century. may rise to 85%.

4. Economy: place in the world, differences between countries.

Foreign Europe, as an integral region, ranks first in the world economy in terms of industrial and agricultural production, exports of goods and services, gold and currency reserves, and development of international tourism.

It is clear that the economic power of the region is primarily determined by the four countries that are part of the “Big Seven” Western countries - Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. It is these countries that have the widest range of different industries and industries. But the balance of power between them has changed in recent decades. The role of leader has passed to Germany, whose economy is developing more dynamically along the path of reindustrialization. Great Britain, the former “workshop of the world,” has lost many of its former positions.

Foreign Europe extends from north to south for 5 thousand kilometers, and from west to east - 3 thousand kilometers. Its territory covers a total of 5.4 million square kilometers, and its population is 520 million people.

General information about Foreign Europe

Foreign Europe represents one of the centers of world civilization, and has incomparable importance for world politics, economics and culture.

On its territory there are 40 sovereign states that are interconnected by their historical past and close cultural and political relations.

If we talk about the economic and geographical position of countries, it is determined by two main criteria. The countries of foreign Europe are relatively close to each other; they either closely border on natural boundaries, or there is a small distance between them, which does not in any way affect the convenience of transport links.

The second main criterion is the coastal position of most countries that are connected with each other and the countries of other continents by sea routes.

Countries such as Italy, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands have been associated with the sea since ancient times.

Political picture of Overseas Europe

The political picture of overseas Europe changed significantly three times during the 20th century.

The First and Second World Wars changed it significantly, and at the end of the century there were significant changes associated with the social democratic parties that came to power.

As for the structure of states in this territory, in foreign Europe there are republics, unitary states, monarchical and federal.

By the 21st century, the Organization for Security and Cooperation, the OSCE, arose, which is represented by 56 countries (it also includes the USA, Canada and the CIS countries).

Natural conditions and resources

There are many mineral resources located on the territory of foreign Europe. The northern part includes ore and fuel minerals.

And hydropower resources are located in the Alps, Dinaric and Scandinavian mountains. Forestry is developed in Sweden and Finland, where forest landscapes are typical.

Population of Overseas Europe

The number of inhabitants in this part of the world is growing very slowly; a rather difficult demographic situation has been recorded in foreign Europe. The territory is a hotbed of global labor emigration; there are about 20 million foreign workers here.

It is important to note that most countries in Europe are highly urbanized, with the highest rates of urbanization being in Belgium, the UK and the Netherlands.

The countries of Europe belong to the Indo-European family; there are four main types of states based on their national composition. These are single-national (Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark), with a sharp predominance of one nation (Great Britain, France, Finland), binational (Belgium) and multinational (Switzerland, Latvia).

Economy of Foreign Europe

Europe occupies a leading place in the world economy in terms of the size of agricultural and industrial production, the development of tourism and the export of goods and services.

The most powerful countries relative to their economic situation are the UK, France, Germany and Italy. They have the most developed complexes of various industries, unlike other countries where one or two industries are highly developed.

Europe... This geographical name primarily recalls ancient Greek myth about the daughter of the Phoenician king Agenor, ruler of Sidon, Europe. According to the myth, Europa was kidnapped by the almighty Zeus, who took the form of a white bull. On the back of this bull, she swam across the Mediterranean Sea from Phenicia to about. Crete (remember the famous painting by Valentin Serov “The Rape of Europa”).

However, toponymists usually produce Name“Europe” is from the Assyrian “ereb” - “darkness”, “sunset”, “west” (as opposed to Asia, whose name is associated with the word “asu” - “sunrise”). At first, the name “Europe” applied only to the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, but gradually spread to the entire territory of this part of the world.

Europe... This geographical name also recalls the enormous contribution to world civilization which began in the era Ancient Greece And Ancient Rome, was continued in the era of the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries, and then in the era of industrial revolutions and social revolutions - and so on to the present day. The largest German geographer of the 19th century. Karl Ritter wrote that historically Europe was destined to develop much better and more beneficially than Asia and Africa, which were richer in nature. Thus, the smallest part of the world became the most powerful, ahead of others both materially and spiritually. “It dominates them,” writes Karl Ritter, “puts a European imprint on them, just as it once itself, at least partially, was subject to the dominion of the East. Europe is the center of an enlightened and educated world. Beneficial rays emanate from her to all ends of the globe.”

Perhaps there is something to be disputed in this panegyric to Europe. Both in relation to spiritual superiority, and in relation only to the “beneficent rays”. Let's not forget about the endless bloody wars that were fought in Europe: the Hundred Years, the Thirty Years, the Seven Years and hundreds of others. The First World War began in Europe. The Second World War broke out here, affecting 9/10 of its population. But nevertheless, the “old stones of Europe” are truly the greatest asset not only of European, but of the entire world civilization. It is generally accepted that European civilization is one of its main foundations.

Europe occupies square about 10 million km 2. Including 5 million km 2 currently located in foreign (relative to the CIS) Europe, which is less than 4% of the total inhabited land area. The territory of foreign Europe stretches from north to south (from Spitsbergen to Crete) for approximately 5 thousand km, from west to east (from the Atlantic coast of Portugal to the Black Sea coast of Romania) for approximately 3100 km.

Population of foreign Europe in 1900–2007 increased from almost 300 million to 527 million people. But its share in the world population during this time decreased from almost 18 to 8%, which is explained by a noticeable decrease in the rate of population reproduction. For many centuries and even millennia, foreign Europe was second only to foreign Asia in terms of population; Now both Africa and Latin America are ahead of it in this indicator.

For physical map of foreign Europe characterized by many features, of which two are especially worth noting.

Firstly, this “mosaic” structure of its territory, which alternates lowland, hilly and mountainous areas; in total, the ratio between plains and mountains is approximately 1: 1. Physico-geographers of Moscow State University identify 9 physical-geographical countries in foreign Europe, dividing them into 19 regions and 51 districts. But at the same time - unlike, say, Asia or America - it is not “fenced off” by high mountain ranges. Among the mountains of Europe, medium-altitude ones predominate, which do not pose insurmountable barriers to economic and other ties. Transport routes have long been built through their numerous passes.

Secondly, this seaside location most countries in overseas Europe, many of which are located on islands and peninsulas, close to busy sea routes from Europe to Asia, Africa, Australia and America. Navigation and maritime trade have long played a major role in their development. The rugged coastline was especially favorable for this. Back in 1914, Osip Mandelstam wrote in his poem “Europe”:

Its living shores are cut up,

And the peninsulas are aerial sculptures,

The contours of the bays are a little feminine,

Vizcaya, Genoa lazy arc.

Indeed, the coastline of Europe, including islands, is 143 thousand km. In foreign Europe there are almost no places that are more than 600 km away from the sea, but the average distance is 300 km. And in most of the UK there are no settlements further than 60–80 km from the coast.

Let us add to this that the natural landscapes of foreign Europe have experienced the greatest anthropogenic changes over the past millennia. Back in the Bronze Age, shifting agriculture, hunting and gathering appeared here, and the domestication of livestock began. In ancient times, nomadic cattle breeding was added to them on the Danube plains, and in Southern Europe the clearing of forests for arable land increased. In the Middle Ages main role Extensive agriculture and livestock breeding played a role, and there was an expansion of cultivated land. And today it is a region of intensive agriculture and livestock raising, with a wide spread of agricultural landscapes. Of all parts of the world, it is Europe that is the most “cultivated”: only 2.8% of its territory is free from traces of human activity.

Political map of foreign Europe It is also distinguished by its peculiar “mosaic” appearance. In the mid-1980s. there were 32 sovereign states here (including the microstates of Andorra, San Marino, Monaco, Vatican City and Liechtenstein). In the early 1990s. in connection with the separation of the Baltic countries from the USSR, the collapse of the SFRY and Czechoslovakia, the number of such countries increased noticeably. The most important change on the political map of the region was also the unification of Germany in 1990.

Most countries in foreign Europe are relatively small in size. Not to mention the microstates, Luxembourg and Malta, nine of them have an area of up to 50 thousand km2: Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Albania and Estonia (for comparison, recall that the Moscow region occupies 47 thousand km2). km 2). Eleven countries have a territory from 50 thousand to 100 thousand km 2: Iceland, Ireland, Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Portugal. Ten countries have a territory from 100 thousand to 500 thousand km 2: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece. And only the areas of two countries - France and Spain - exceed 500 thousand km 2.

To understand the “scale” of foreign European countries, it is also very important to become familiar with their linear dimensions. Norway is the longest (1,750 km), followed by Sweden (1,600), Finland (1,160), France (1,000), Great Britain (965), and Germany (876 km). In countries such as Bulgaria or Hungary, the largest linear distances do not exceed 500 km, and in the Netherlands - 300 km. Therefore, the “depth” of the territory in most of them is not very great. For example, in Bulgaria and Hungary there are no places that are more than 115–120 km from the borders of these countries. Such border conditions can be considered as an important favorable prerequisite for the development of integration processes.

Finally, one cannot help but say that foreign Europe has been and remains one of the largest centers of the world economy. Its total GDP is more than $15 trillion, or approximately 22% of the world's. The region ranks first (40%) in world trade. He also holds leadership in the field of gold and foreign exchange reserves and foreign investments. Most countries in foreign Europe have entered the post-industrial stage of development. They are characterized by a tall and very high level quality of life of the population.

Especially radical transformation occurred in foreign Europe in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In its western part they were associated primarily with education single European economic area based on 15 European Union (EU) countries. In its eastern part, they found expression in a change in the social system and the transition from a centralized state economy to a market economy. Folds and single political space foreign Europe, which is facilitated by the fact that in the second half of the 1990s. in most of its countries, the “right”, conservative parties were replaced by the “left” parties of social democrats and socialists. The formation of a single political (geopolitical) space also occurs as a result of the activities of international organizations. Two of them are especially important.

Firstly, this Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), which occupies a central place in the European security system. Created in 1975, it proceeds from the fact that the basis of interstate relations in Europe should be: respect for the sovereign equality of states, their territorial integrity, inviolability of borders, non-use of force or threat of force, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights . In 1999, the OSCE adopted the Charter for European Security, which became a kind of “code of conduct” for European states and organizations. The OSCE structure includes many permanent bodies (meetings, councils, committees, bureaus, missions, etc.). In 2008, this organization included 56 states (with the USA, Canada, Japan, CIS countries and some others).

Secondly, this Council of Europe (CoE), created in 1949 as a political advisory organization promoting integration processes in the field of human rights, fundamental freedoms and parliamentary democracy. The main bodies of the Council of Europe are the Committee of Ministers (at the level of foreign ministers), the Parliamentary Assembly (PACE) - an advisory body with advisory functions, and the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe. The Secretariat of the Council of Europe is located in Strasbourg (France).

Recently, more and more often they also write about a single European idea, about problems European education, which should contribute to the spiritual rapprochement of European peoples. It also includes the formation European consciousness, aimed at ensuring that the inhabitants of the region recognize themselves not only as Germans, French or English, but above all as Europeans, who are connected by the commonality of Western European civilization with its many unique features. This means that younger generations of Europeans must be brought up in accordance with the principle of “double loyalty” - both to their country and to a united Europe.

Along with this, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. In foreign Europe, changes also occurred that affected the international political landscape and disrupted the existing system of collective security. First of all, this relates to the Alliance’s desire to extend its influence to the post-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Thus, in 1999, Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary joined NATO. In 2004, three Baltic countries, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia and Slovenia, were admitted to NATO. This meant approaching the boundaries of the block directly to Russian border and was perceived negatively, at least psychologically, in Russia, which does not pose a threat to NATO. This also applies to NATO's claims to a major role in the process of making important political decisions, bypassing the largest international organizations for maintaining peace and security.

Russia, as a European country, takes an active part in all European affairs. It is a member of the OSCE and was admitted to the Council of Europe in 1996, becoming its 39th member. In 1997, the fundamental Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security was concluded between Russia and NATO. It notes that Russia and NATO do not view each other as adversaries, and their common goal is to overcome the remnants of previous confrontation and rivalry and strengthen mutual trust and cooperation. The Russia-NATO Permanent Council was also created. In 1999, relations between them were noticeably darkened due to NATO's military action in Yugoslavia. Then they began to gradually improve and were especially strengthened after the terrorist attack in the United States on September 11, 2001 and the creation of a broad anti-terrorist coalition, which included Russia. In 2002, new relations between Russia and NATO were officially established in the form of the so-called “G20” (19 NATO countries and Russia). However, in mid-2008, in connection with the decision to deploy elements of the American missile defense system in the Czech Republic and Poland, and even more so after Georgia’s military action in South Ossetia, relations between Russia and NATO sharply deteriorated.

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FOREIGN EUROPE

GEOGRAPHICAL SPECIFICITY

Europe from the Greek "zurope" - the country of the west, from the Assyrian "ereb" - darkness, "sunset", "west" (Asia from "asu" - "sunrise").

Features of the geographical location

1. The territory of foreign Europe (without the CIS countries) is 5.1 million km 2, and the total is about 10 million km 2. The length from north to south (from Spitsbergen to Crete) is 5 thousand km, and from west to east - more than 3 thousand km.

2. Relief "mosaic" of its territory: 1:1 - lowlands and elevated areas. Among the mountains of Europe, most are of medium height. The borders run primarily along natural boundaries that do not create obstacles to transport connections.

3. High degree of ruggedness of the coastline.

4. The coastal position of most countries. The average distance from the sea is 300 km. In the western part of the region there is no place more than 480 km away from the sea, in the eastern part – 600 km.

5. The “depth” of the territory of most countries is small. So in Bulgaria and Hungary there are no places that are more than 115-120 km away from the borders of these countries.

6. Neighborhood location favorable for integration processes.

7. Advantageous position in terms of contacts with the rest of the worlds, because is located at the junction with Asia and Africa, extended far into the ocean - the “large peninsula of Eurasia.”

8. Variety natural resources, but non-comprehensive distribution by country, many deposits are largely depleted.

CONCLUSION: profitable EGP, good prerequisites for the development of the economy.

POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE

Until the mid-80s there were 32 sovereign states, including microstates. Since the beginning of the 90s - about 40 states.

6 largest by territory: France, Spain, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Finland.

POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE TERRITORIAL STRUCTURE OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Most are sovereign states, 34 are republics, 14 are monarchies.

Principalities: Monaco, Liechtenstein, Andorra.

Duchy: Luxembourg.

Kingdoms: Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Spain, Sweden.

They are all constitutional monarchies.

Theocratic monarchy: papacy - Vatican.

Federations: Germany, Belgium, Austria, FRY, Spain.

Confederation: Switzerland.

The oldest republic is San Marino (from the 13th century), the Swiss Confederation has existed since the end of the 13th century.

Major political and economic alliances

The vast majority of countries are members of the UN. Switzerland joined the UN in September 2002.

NATO members (14 countries): Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Belgium, Great Britain, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic. At the Prague Summit in November 2002, 7 new members were invited to the Alliance: Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. But they can become full members only in 2004.

EU members (15 countries): Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria. From January 2002 the number of countries in the EU will increase. From January 2004, the number of countries in the EU may increase due to Poland, Lithuania and other countries.

DIFFERENTIATION OF COUNTRIES BY LEVEL OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Most countries belong to the group of industrialized countries. Four countries: Germany, Great Britain, France and Italy are part of the G7 Western countries. Post-socialist countries or countries with economies in transition occupy a special place on the economic map of the region.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources of global importance

Coal:

· Total reserves: 3rd place in the world after Asia and America

· Hard coal: 3rd place in the world after Asia and America

· Proven reserves: 3rd place after Asia and America

· Hard coal - 2nd place after Asia

· Brown coal - 3rd place after America and Asia

· For hard coal: Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Great Britain

· For brown coal: Germany, Eastern Europe

Mining chemical raw materials (potassium salts): Germany, France

Recreational resources: Southern Europe, France, etc.

Natural resources of regional importance

Forest

3rd place in the world after South America and the CIS

Forest cover - 32% - shares 3rd place with Zarub. Asia, yielding Latin America and CIS.

Most forested: Finland (59%), Sweden (54%)

Fish

Northern Europe (Norway, Iceland)

Mineral

· Uranium ores: France, Sweden, Spain

Iron ores: France, Sweden

· Copper ores: Poland, Finland, ex. Yugoslavia

· Oil: UK, Norway, Romania

· Gas: Netherlands, UK, Norway

· Mercury ores: Spain, Italy

· Bauxite: France, Greece, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina

· Sulfur: Poland

· Graphite: Czech Republic

Hydropower resources

Total river flow resources per capita - 6 thousand m 3 year, less only in Asia

Hydropotential is in penultimate place (lower only in Australia and Oceania). But the degree of development is high - 70% - 1st place in the world.

Agroclimatic resources

Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe

Land resources

World land fund: 134 million sq. km. Of these, Foreign Europe accounts for 5.1 million square meters. km (last place in the world). Per capita - 1 ha

Structure of the land fund of Europe in %: 29/18/32/5/16 (For reference: structure of the land fund of the world in %: 11/23/30/2/34).

By share of cultivated land - 1st place (29%)

The share of land occupied by pastures (18%) is lower than the world average (23%), while the share of land occupied by forests (32%) is higher (30%).

The world's largest share of land occupied by human settlements: 5%

The share of unproductive land is less than in other parts of the world - 16%

Provision of arable land per capita - 0.28 hectares with the world average - 0.24-0.25 hectares

POPULATION

Table 1. Demographic, socio-economic indicators of the world, Overseas Europe and European subregions

Indicators	Foreign Europe	Northern Europe	Western Europe	Southern Europe	Eastern Europe
Area, thousand km 2
Population in 1998, million people.
Fertility, ‰
Mortality, ‰
Natural increase
Life expectancy, m/f
Age structure, under 16 / over 65
Proportion of urban population in 1995, %
GDP per capita in 1995, $

In Europe, there are 96 men for every 100 women.

Urbanization

Most countries of Foreign Europe are highly urbanized - Belgium (97%), the Netherlands and Great Britain (89% each), Denmark (85%). Only Portugal (36%), Albania (37%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (49%) are classified as medium-urbanized countries (the share of the urban population does not exceed 50%).

The largest agglomerations in Europe: London, Paris, Rhine-Ruhr.

Megalopolises: English, Rhine.

A characteristic process is suburbanization.

Migration

International immigration centers: France, Great Britain, Germany, Switzerland, where over 10% of the total number of employees are foreign workers. Areas of emigration - countries of Southern Europe: Italy, Portugal, Spain, Serbia; Türkiye, North African countries.

National composition

Most European countries belong to the Indo-European family.

Types of state by national composition:

· mononational(i.e. the main ethnic group is over 90%). There are most of them in Europe (Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Austria, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Italy, Portugal),

· with a sharp predominance of one nation, but in the presence of more or less significant minorities (Great Britain, France, Spain, Finland, Romania);

· binational(Belgium);

· multinational countries, with a complex and ethnically diverse composition (Russia, Switzerland, FRY, Latvia, etc.).

In many countries there are complex problems of interethnic relations: Great Britain, Spain (Basques), France (Corsica), Belgium, Cyprus, etc.

Religious composition of the population

The dominant religion is Christianity.

· Southern Europe - Catholicism

· Northern - Protestant

· Average - Protestantism and Catholicism

· Eastern - Orthodoxy and Catholicism

· Albania, Croatia - Islam

ECONOMY: PLACE IN THE WORLD, DIFFERENCESBETWEEN COUNTRIES

The economic power of the region is primarily determined by four countries that are members of the "Big Seven" Western countries - Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. It is these countries that have the widest range of different industries and industries. But the balance of power between them has changed in recent decades. The role of leader has passed to Germany, whose economy is developing more dynamically along the path of reindustrialization. Great Britain, the former “workshop of the world,” has lost many of its former positions.

Of the remaining countries of foreign Europe, Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium and Sweden have the greatest economic weight. Unlike the four main countries, their economy specializes primarily in individual industries, which, as a rule, have won European or world recognition. Small and medium-sized countries are especially widely involved in global economic relations. The openness of the economy reached its highest level in Belgium and the Netherlands.

A special place on the economic map of the region is occupied by the countries of Eastern Europe, where since the late 80s. There is a transition from the previous system of public ownership and central planning to a system based on market principles. These post-socialist countries for a long time in their socio-economic development, oriented primarily towards the Soviet Union (and the Baltic countries were part of it), now “look” more not to the East, but to the West of Europe. This change in orientation has a great impact on the sectoral and territorial structure of their economy and on the direction of foreign economic relations.

Industry: main sectors.

The region produces more metalworking machines, industrial robots, precision and optical instruments, cars, tractors, petroleum products, plastics, and chemical fibers than the United States.

Mechanical engineering- a leading industry in foreign Europe, which is its homeland. This industry accounts for 1/3 of the region's total industrial output and 2/3 of its exports.

Particularly developed Automotive industry. Car brands such as Renault (France), Volkswagen and Mercedes (Germany), FIAT (Factory Italiana Automobile Torino), Volvo (Sweden), Tatra (Czech Republic), are world famous. buses "Ikarus" (Hungary). Ford Motor plants operate in Great Britain, Belgium, Spain and other countries.

Mechanical engineering, focusing primarily on labor resources, scientific base and infrastructure, most of all gravitates towards large cities and agglomerations, including capital ones.

Chemical industry in foreign Europe it ranks second after mechanical engineering. This especially applies to the most “chemicalized” country not only in this region, but also in the whole world - Germany.

Before the Second World War, the chemical industry focused mainly on hard and brown coal, potash and table salts, pyrites and was located in the areas where they were mined. The reorientation of the industry towards hydrocarbon raw materials has led to its shift towards oil. In the western part of the region, this shift was expressed primarily in the emergence major centers petrochemicals in the estuaries of the Thames, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and Rhone, where this industry is combined with oil refining.

The largest hub of petrochemical production and refineries in the region was formed in the Rhine and Scheldt estuary in the Netherlands, in the Rotterdam area. In fact, it serves the whole of Western Europe.

In the eastern part of the region, the shift “towards oil” led to the creation of refineries and petrochemical plants along the routes of main oil and gas pipelines.

The main oil refining and petrochemical enterprises in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary were built along the route of the international oil pipeline "Druzhba" and gas pipelines that brought oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union. In Bulgaria, for the same reason, petrochemicals are “shifted” to the Black Sea coast.

IN fuel and energy sector In most countries of foreign Europe, the leading place was taken by oil and natural gas, produced both in the region itself (North Sea) and imported from developing countries, from Russia. Coal production and consumption in Great Britain, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium has decreased sharply. In the eastern part of the region, the focus on coal is still preserved, and not so much on hard coal (Poland, Czech Republic), but on brown coal. There is perhaps no other area in the world where brown coal plays such a large role in the fuel and energy balance.

Most thermal power plants also focus on coal basins. But they were also built in seaports (using imported fuel) and in major cities. The construction of nuclear power plants, of which there are already more than 80 in the region, is having an increasing impact on the structure and geography of the electric power industry - especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. On the Danube and its tributaries, on the Rhone, the upper Rhine, Duero built hydroelectric power stations or entire cascades of them.

But still, in most countries, with the exception of Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, hydroelectric power plants now play a supporting role. Since the region’s hydro resources have already been used to 4/5, recently more economical pumped storage power plants have been mainly built. Iceland uses geothermal energy.

Metallurgical industry foreign Europe was mainly formed even before the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution era. Ferrous metallurgy developed primarily in countries with metallurgical fuel and (or) raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Poland, Czech Republic.

After the Second World War, large mills were built or expanded in seaports with a focus on importing higher quality, cheaper iron ore and scrap metal. The largest and most modern of the plants built in seaports is located in Taranto (Italy).

Recently, mostly mini-factories, rather than large plants, have been built.

The most important branches of non-ferrous metallurgy are aluminum And copperindustry.Productionaluminum arose both in countries with bauxite reserves (France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Greece) and in countries where there are no aluminum raw materials, but a lot of electricity is generated (Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Recently, aluminum smelters are increasingly focusing on raw materials coming from developing countries by sea.

Copper industry received the greatest development in Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Poland, Yugoslavia.

Forestry industry, focusing primarily on sources of raw materials, has become an industry of international specialization in Sweden and Finland, which have long formed the main “timber workshop of the region.” geographical division europe resource

Light industry, with which the industrialization of foreign Europe began, has largely lost its former significance. Old textile districts that formed at the dawn of the industrial revolution (Lancashire and Yorkshire in Great Britain, Flanders in Belgium, Lyon in France, Milan in Italy), as well as those that arose already in the 19th century. The Lodz region of Poland still exists today. But recently, light industry has been shifting to Southern Europe, where there are still reserves of cheap labor. Thus, Portugal has become almost the main “garment factory” of the region. And Italy is second only to China in shoe production.

Many countries also maintain rich national traditions in the production of furniture, musical instruments, glass, metal, jewelry, toys, etc.

SELSESOME FARM: THREE MAIN TYPES

For the main types of agricultural products, most countries fully meet their needs and are interested in marketing them foreign markets. The main type of agricultural enterprise is a large, highly mechanized farm. But in Southern Europe, landlordism and small-scale land use by peasant tenants still predominate.

The main branches of agriculture in foreign Europe are crop production and livestock farming, which are widespread everywhere, combining with each other. Under the influence of natural and historical conditions, three main types of agriculture have developed in the region:

1) Northern European, 2) Central European and 3) Southern European.

For Northern European type, widespread in Scandinavia, Finland, as well as in Great Britain, is characterized by the predominance of intensive dairy farming, and in the plant growing that serves it - fodder crops and gray bread.

Central European type It is distinguished by the predominance of dairy and dairy-meat livestock farming, as well as pig and poultry farming. Livestock farming has reached a very high level in Denmark, where it has long become a branch of international specialization. This country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of butter, milk, cheese, pork, and eggs. It is often called the "dairy farm" of Europe.

Crop production not only satisfies the basic food needs of the population, but also “works” for livestock farming. A significant and sometimes the predominant part of arable land is occupied by fodder crops.

For South European type characterized by a significant predominance of crop farming, while livestock farming plays a secondary role. Although the main place in crops is occupied by grain crops, the international specialization of Southern Europe is determined primarily by the production of fruits, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, nuts, tobacco, and essential oil crops. The Mediterranean coast is the main “garden of Europe”.

The entire Mediterranean coast of Spain and especially the region of Valencia is usually called "huerta", i.e. "garden". Various fruits and vegetables are grown here, but most of all oranges, the harvest of which lasts from December to March. Spain ranks first in the world in orange exports. There are more than 90 million olive trees in Greece. This tree became a kind of national symbol for the Greeks. Since the times of Ancient Hellas, the olive branch has been a sign of peace.

In many cases, the specialization of agriculture takes on a narrower profile. Thus, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland are famous for the production of cheese, the Netherlands for flowers, Germany and the Czech Republic for growing barley and hops and brewing. And in terms of production and consumption of grape wines, France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal stand out not only in Europe, but throughout the world.

Fishing has long been an international specialty in Norway, Denmark and especially Iceland.

NON-PRODUCTION SPHERE

Transport: main highways and hubs.

The regional transport system of the region belongs to Western European type. In terms of transportation range, it is much inferior to the systems of the USA and Russia. But in terms of transport network availability, it is far ahead, ranking first in the world. Relatively short distances stimulated the development of road transport, which now plays a major role in the transportation of not only passengers, but also goods. Net railways in most countries is declining, and large new buildings in the 50-70s. were typical only for some countries of Eastern Europe (Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania).

The configuration of the region's land transport network is very complex. But its main framework is formed by highways of latitudinal and meridional directions, which are of international importance. The main latitudinal trans-European highways pass as follows: 1) Brest - Paris - Berlin - Warsaw - Minsk - Moscow, 2) London - Paris - Vienna - Budapest - Belgrade - Sofia - Istanbul.

River routes also have meridional (Rhine) or latitudinal (Danube) directions. The transport significance of the Rhine-Main-Danube waterway is especially great.

Danube - “transnational arrow”: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, FRY, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine

Rhine: Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, the Netherlands.

Drava: Italy, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, FRY

Tisa: Ukraine, Romania, Slovakia, Hungary, FRY

Large transport hubs emerged at the intersection of land and inland waterways. Essentially, such nodes are seaports that primarily serve international transport. Many of the world's yurts (London, Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, Le Havre) are located in estuaries of rivers that connect them with inland areas. They all actually turned into one port-industrial complexes. They are characterized by the development of branches of the maritime economy and especially the so-called “port industry”, which operates on imported, overseas raw materials. The largest of them is Rotterdam. The cargo turnover of the port of Rotterdam is about 300 million tons per year. Located on one of the branches of the Rhine, 33 km from the sea, it serves as the main sea gate for many European countries. It is connected with the hinterlands waterways along the Rhine and Moselle, railways and highways, oil and gas pipelines.

Western Europe - good example how even large natural barriers cease to be an insurmountable obstacle to transport links. Numerous railways, roads and pipelines cross the Alps. Ferry crossings connect the shores of the Baltic, North, and Mediterranean seas. Road bridges span the Bosphorus and the Great Belt. The “project of the century” - the construction of a railway tunnel across the English Channel - has been completed.

Science and finance: technology parks, technopolises and banking centers.

Following the example of Silicon Valley in the United States, many research parks and technopolises have also emerged in foreign Europe, which already largely determine the geography of science in a number of countries. The largest of them are located in the vicinity of Cambridge (Great Britain), Munich (Germany). In the south of France, in the Nice area, the so-called “Valley of High Technology” is being formed.

Overseas Europe is home to 60 of the world's 200 largest banks. Switzerland has long been the standard of a banking country: the safes of its banks contain half of all valuable papers peace. The “economic capital” of the country, Zurich, especially stands out. Recently, both Luxembourg and Frankfurt am Main have turned into banking countries. But still, London was and remains the largest financial center.

Leisure and tourism

Foreign Europe has been and remains the main region of international tourism. All types of tourism have developed here, and the “tourism industry” has reached a very high level. Spain, France and Italy also invariably act as leading countries in international tourism. The most popular countries attracting tourists also include Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Portugal, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. And in such microstates as Andorra, San Marino, Monaco, serving tourists has long been the main source of income. There are one hundred tourists here for every resident.

Environmental protection and environmental issues

As a result of high population density and long-standing industrial and agricultural development of the territory, the natural environment of foreign Europe has become to the greatest extent the geographical environment of human society. All types of anthropogenic landscapes are widespread here. But at the same time, this has led to the exacerbation of many environmental and environmental problems.

Some of them are associated with open-pit mining, combustion and chemical processing of high-ash (primarily brown) coal. Others - with the placement of a number of cities and agglomerations, metallurgical, oil and gas refining and petrochemical plants, nuclear power plants on the banks of the Rhine, Elbe, Danube, Vistula, on the sea coasts, and still others - with the spread of acid rain. Fourth - with an ever-increasing “car density”, which in a number of urban agglomerations already reaches 250-300 cars per 1 km 2. Fifth - with the spontaneous development of tourism, which has already led to significant degradation natural environment, both in the Alps and on the Mediterranean coast. The sixth - with the enormous danger to the natural environment created by supertanker disasters, which often occur, especially on the approaches to the English Channel.

All countries in the region are pursuing state environmental policies and are taking increasingly decisive measures to protect the environment. Strict environmental laws were issued, massive public organizations and the Green Party, the use of bicycles is being promoted, and the network of national parks and other protected areas has been expanded.

All this led to the first positive results. Nevertheless, in many countries the environmental situation still remains difficult. First of all, this applies to Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Poland, and the Czech Republic.

In general, the environmental situation in the eastern part of foreign Europe is much worse than in the western part.

GEOGRAPHICALFIGURE OF SETTLEMENT AND ECONOMY

"Central axis" of development- the main element of the territorial structure of the region.

The territorial structure of the population and economy of foreign Europe was mainly formed in the 19th century, when natural resources were perhaps the main factor of location, and when coal and metallurgical regions of Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Poland, the Czech Republic, and other countries arose. After the Second World War, the greatest influence on this structure was exerted by the factors of labor resources and EGP benefits, and more recently also by science intensity and environmental factors.

In total, the region has approximately 400 urban agglomerations and about one hundred industrial districts. The most significant of them are located within the “central axis” of development, which extends across eight countries. Its core is the “main street of Europe” - the Rhine-Rhone line. 120 million people live within the borders of this “axis”, and about half of the region’s total economic potential is concentrated.

In foreign Europe, several more similar “axes” of smaller scale can be identified. This is an industrial-urban belt stretching along common borders Poland, the Czech Republic and Germany, the Danube "axis", strips along the main oil pipelines, some coastal areas.

Highly developed pions: examples of London and Paris

The most striking examples of highly developed areas that concentrate the latest industries, infrastructure, science, culture, and services are the metropolitan regions of Greater London and Greater Paris.

Both London and Paris grew up primarily as the administrative and political centers of their countries, which they have served for more than eight centuries. Both capitals are large industrial centers in which high-tech, knowledge-intensive industries are widely represented, and in Paris there is also the production of so-called “Parisian products” (clothing, jewelry, etc.), thanks to which for several centuries it has acted as a trendsetter for everything peace. But even more important is that the largest banks and exchanges, headquarters of monopolies, leading scientific institutions, as well as the residences of many international organizations are concentrated here. In accordance with regional programs, the central parts of both capital regions are being unloaded.

Eight satellite cities were built in the vicinity of London, and five satellite cities in the vicinity of Paris.

Examples of other highly developed areas of foreign Europe include: southern region Germany with centers in Stuttgart and Munich, the "industrial triangle" Milan - Turin - Genoa in Italy, the industrial-urban agglomeration of Randstad ("ring city") in the Netherlands. All of them are within the “central axis” of development.

Old industrial areas

No other region of the world has such a number of old industrial areas with a predominance of basic industries as in foreign Europe. The largest of them arose on the basis of coal basins. But even among such areas, the Ruhr region especially stands out, which for many decades has been rightfully considered the industrial heart of Germany.

Within the Ruhr basin and adjacent areas, the Lower Rhine-Ruhr agglomeration has developed. Here, on an area of 9 thousand km2, 11 million people live and about a hundred cities are concentrated, including 20 large ones. There is, perhaps, no other such concentration of large cities on one territory anywhere in the world. In some parts of the agglomeration, the population density reaches 5 thousand people per 1 km2. Its Ruhr part forms a complex urban area with almost no breaks, which is usually called “Rurstadt”, i.e. “Ruhr city”. In fact, this is truly a single city, the western gate of which is Duisburg, the eastern gate is Dortmund, the “capital” is Essen, and the main “safe” is Dusseldorf.

Recently, the industry of the Ruhr, numbering several thousand enterprises, has undergone significant reconstruction. In the 50s The Ruhr was considered almost a classic depressed area. But nowadays it would be wrong to put him in this category. A large environmental program has been implemented in the Ruhr region. The Rhine, which not so long ago was called the sewer of Europe, has become cleaner, and fish have appeared in it again.

Examples of other old industrial areas include Lancashire, Yorkshire, the west Midlands, South Wales in the UK, the Northern region, Alsace and Lorraine in France, the Saarland, which is often called the “Little Ruhr”, in Germany, the Upper Silesian region in Poland, Ostrava in the Czech Republic . But most of them fall into the category of depression.

Backward agricultural areas

In foreign Europe there are still many rather backward, predominantly agricultural regions. A striking example of this kind is the south of Italy, which occupies 40% of the country's territory, concentrates more than 35% of the population and only 18% of those employed in industry. Per capita income here is almost two times lower than in the North. After World War II, due to relative agrarian overpopulation, more than 5 million people emigrated from the South.

The state is pursuing a regional policy aimed at the rise of the South. It led to the construction of large metallurgical and petrochemical plants and other enterprises here. As a result, the South was no longer a purely agricultural region. However, the factories have almost no connection with the surrounding territory, since they operate on imported raw materials, and their products are exported to other regions of the country and to other countries.

Examples of other backward agrarian regions of foreign Europe include: the western part of France, the central and southwestern parts of Spain, Portugal and Greece. All of them are located outside the "central axis". The problem of uplifting backward areas is also relevant for many countries in Eastern Europe.

New development areas

For the long-developed territory of foreign Europe, areas of new development are generally not typical. Usually they included only the northern part of Scandinavia. But the opening in the early 60s. of a large oil and gas basin in the North Sea changed the situation.

By the beginning of the 90s. More than 250 oil and natural gas fields were identified in this “golden mine.” In addition, the Netherlands has one of the world's largest gas fields off the coast. The North Sea region satisfies 1/3 of the needs of foreign Europe for oil and 2/3 of the needs for natural gas. Nowadays the sea is literally “stuffed” with drilling platforms; several thousand kilometers of pipelines are laid along its bottom. But in this regard, a considerable environmental threat arises, not to mention fisheries, which have suffered irreparable damage.

The impact of international economic integration on the territoryhistorical structure of the economy

Favorable prerequisites for the development of international economic integration in the region include territorial proximity, high development of the territory, a high level of socio-economic development, good transport availability, and long traditions of economic ties. During the existence of the EU, all this has already led to the further merging of the territorial economic structures of individual countries, especially within the “central axis” of development. Border integration areas are being formed: between Germany and France, between France and Belgium, France and Italy, etc.

Figure 1. Subregions of Foreign Europe.

Table 2. What some countries of Foreign Europe produce and export.

	Products of industrial production and export
	Cars, airplanes, sea vessels, weapons, equipment for the forestry and pulp and paper industries, paper, pulp, iron ore, medicines, livestock products.
Finland	Lumber, paper, cellulose, equipment for the forestry and woodworking industries, marine vessels, dairy products.
Great Britain	Machinery and equipment, airplanes, cars, tractors, weapons, oil, chemicals, fabrics, light industrial products.
	Cars, airplanes, ships, weapons, equipment for nuclear power plants, ferrous metals, aluminum, fabrics, clothing, perfumes, wheat, dairy and meat products, sugar, wines.
	Cars, machine tools, industrial equipment, electrical and electronics products, weapons, chemicals, light industry products.
	Automobiles, marine vessels, electrical equipment, chemicals, metal ores, light industrial products, citrus fruits, olive oil, guilt.
	Cars, marine vessels, electrical equipment, weapons, chemicals, refrigerators, washing and office machines, textiles and clothing, shoes, vegetables, fruits, citrus fruits, wines.
	Machinery and equipment, sea vessels, coal, copper, sulfur, medicines, textiles, agricultural products.
Bulgaria	Electrical and electronics products, handling equipment, agricultural machinery, non-ferrous metals, clothing and tobacco products, canned food, wine, rose oil