The student's body is developing under the influence of environmental factors, under the influence of the conditions of education and training in school and family. Biological factors influence the development of the body: the activities of the internal secretion glands, heredity.

Knowledge of the anatomy-physiological characteristics of the student is necessary to the teacher to address the following issues of training and education, taking into account the possibilities of the growing organism: hygiene training and education, extracurricular health and recreation, hygiene of labor preparation and physical education of children, nutrition of students, preventing diseases among students, etc. d.

Laws of a growing organism

The body of a child or adolescent is different from the organism of an adult. The main feature of the young organism is the continuous comprehensive development, which begins with the moment of birth and is mainly completed by 22-25 years. Over the years, there are significant changes in the school in the school in the child's body (an increase in the growth and body weight, a change in the body shape, enhancement of metabolism). All processes proceed intensively. In this regard, the following age periods of the schoolchild have been established: Junior (from 6 to 11 years old), medium (from 11 to 15 years) and senior (from 15 to 18 years).

The growth of the child's body proceeds unevenly and during periods of slow growth occurs the most intensive differentiation of tissues and formation.

Acquaintance with the anatomy-physiological features of the growing organism begin with study anthropometric data (External body shape, the ratio and size of individual parts of the body, weight, etc.), and these data are changed to different age periods.

For example, a newborn is different from an adult relatively large head, a large torso and short limbs. The height of the newborn head is 1/4 of the length of the whole torso, six years old - 1/6, twelve years - 1/7 and in adults - 1/8. With age, the increase in the head slows down, and the growth of the limbs on the contrary is enhanced.

The proportions of the body in boys and girls before the beginning of the period of puberty are almost the same, but by the end of this period the characteristic sex features are scheduled in proportions.

When conducting anthropometric measurements of children there may be significant individual deviations and it must be considered.

The growth of the body proceeds unevenly: increased growth in 6-7 years, and then slowing down until the period of puberty. The growth rates in girls and boys up to 10 years are the same, then in 11-12 years old in girls with a period of puberty, it increases significantly. Girls are distilled by the growth of boys, the maximum falls on 12-13 years (an annual increase in height to 8 cm). The boys the period of puberty occurs in 13-14 years old and therefore growth rates are increasing. By 15-16, the boys catch up with girls, and then overtake them. After 16 years, growth slows down and, mostly, it is completed by the girls to 18, and the young men - by 20 years.

The determination of the circumference of the chest has a large practical value, i.e. The normal development of breathing, hearts and large blood vessels is largely dependent on its normal development.

Of all the above, it can be seen that every teacher and, in particular, physiological teacher needs to know the anato-physiological features of a growing person. Studying these features Let's start with the nervous system as the most important system that controls the activities of all other systems.

Nervous system

The nervous system unites and regulates the vital activity of the whole organism. Consists of a central nervous system and peripheral. The central nervous system, in turn, consists of a spinal and brain, and the brain - the body in which the processes of thinking are carried out.

In the cortex of large hemispheres, new, constructed during the life of nervous connections - conditioned reflexes occurs, the processes of consciousness are carried out here. The development of speech and labor activity of a person is inextricably linked with the complication and improvement of the cerebral cortex, and at the same time mental activities. Subcountry centers and centers of the brain barrel carry out complex unconditional reflector activities, the highest forms of which are instincts.

Nervous fabric has two very important properties: excitation and braking. They are in constant interaction and are the basis of all CNS activities. Both of these processes depend on the effects of the environment and the internal processes occurring in the body and provide normal nervous activities, the correct behavior of a person.

Nervous cells, in contrast to other cells of the body, are not able to multiply, and they are fully laid by the time of birth. And the process of complicating the structure of nerve cells continues throughout life.

In the younger school age due to the fact that the nerve cells have not yet fully formed, the processes of excitation prevail in the brain. Therefore, young children are difficult to focus on any activity. By the end of the period of puberty, the nerve cells of the crust of large hemispheres finish their development and formation. This creates a physiological basis for the most subtle and complex forms of analytical and synthetic activities of a person.

Hygiene of the nervous system of children and adolescents is inextricably linked with the hygienic organization of all educational work. It is of great importance to the correct organization of the day regime, the rationing of mental load, correctly set physical education.

An individual approach to each child and a teenager, taking into account their features, the type of higher nervous activity, the level of development of physical and mental abilities and health status is very important. Especially harmful to teenager alcohol and nicotine.

Sense organs

Activities require the greatest attention, because The visible perception of the world occurs only with their help (90% of the information).

The organ of view - the eye is covered with a protein shell, which protects it from damage. On the inner wall of the protein shell is a lot of blood vessels that provide food. At the bottom of the eye there is a mesh shell, which consists of branches of the optic nerve. Spectative perceptions occur after the penetration of light rays through the pupil, irritating it on the mesh shell. According to a visual nerve, the excitement enters the bark of large hemishers and causes visual perception.

The eyes of children in their structure differ from the eyes of adults. Eye depressions and eyeballs they have relatively more than adults. The anterorable axis of the eyeball is shorter, which provides relatively greater thangility in children. The protein shell (sclera) in children is thinner, and the cornea is thicker, the lens has a more convex form than in adults, and is very elastic, which ensures the rapid change of its shape. This circumstance suggests that children have a much greater capacity of accommodation than adults.

In the process of studying the organ of view, a significant burden is falling mainly related to reading and writing. In the lesson, students perceive a large number of alphabone elements. It has been established that in 129 letters, i.e. Approximately three stitching of the book text, the eye distinguishes 1170 black and white elements. When reading, the student has to consider the text at close range, as well as to move through the line of the line line and from the string to the line, which creates significant fatigue for the eyes and ultimately can lead to the development of myopia.

Therefore, the hygiene provides: 1) sufficient and proper natural and artificial lighting of the student's workplace; 2) the correct device of the school desk and the correct landing at the desk; 3) the rationing of the time of operation of children associated with long-term eye voltage; 4) compliance of textbooks by hygienic standards; 5) holding classes that promote the rest of the eyes (excursions, moving games, physical education lessons, etc.).

Organ hearing Designed to perceive various sounds. Sound oscillations of air are perceived by the drummeal, which is driven by oscillatory movements. At the same time, hearing bones of the middle ear come to oscillation. From them, sound oscillations are transmitted to the fluid of the inner ear, due to which it is reduced to the condition of the corortion of the corortion organ consisting of special cells associated with the endings of the auditory nerve. The excitation of a rumor nerve is transmitted to the brain.

The hearing body in children does not differ from the organ of hearing adults.

Human hearing hygiene consists in: 1) the maintenance of the ears in purity; 2) protection against possible mechanical damage; 3) Protection of children from strong and sudden noise. Particular attention must be paid to the ears of children during diseases such as Scarlantine, Cort, Flu, after which various complications are possible, inflammation of the middle ear, which can lead to hearing loss.

Body taste Children's school children are well developed.

Feeling Smean Children of preschool and school age are usually sharper than adults.

Tactile Feelings are well developed in children. Tanguage sensations help children best get acquainted with the outside world.

In hygienic and pedagogical terms, it is very important to develop these feelings in children, because They help children are better to master with the surrounding objects.

Bone and muscular system

Skeleton Makes up the support of the whole organism. Separate parts of the skeleton are the protection of such essential bodies as the brain, the heart, light, etc. The bone system in combination with the muscular system forms the human movement organs, while the bones are levers caused by muscle attached to them. Muscles are reduced due to pulses coming from the nervous system.

Bones can withstand pressure up to 16 kg per 1 mm 2 surface. The possibility of such a load is ensured by the special location of the bone plates from which the bone tissue consists.

Bone tissue in school children contains a large amount of organic substances and poor minerals, which contributes to an easier change in the shape of the chest, violation of the normal operation of organs and the reverse of the spinal column with long-term stresses and incorrect positions of the body.

By 12 years, bone tissue in children acquires the same structure as in adults. The spine in an adult has four curvatures: cervical - convexity forward; breast - bulge back; Lumbar - convexity forward; Sacring - bulge back. The spinal osenation is completed only by 20-22 years and it causes lightly its flexibility and possible curvature with the wrong body position in children. Spinal curvature can be:

1) in the form of bends of the cervical and breast departments of the spine to the side - scoliosis;

2) the forefront of the curvature of the inflation - kyphosis;

3) Excessive bending in the lumbar section - Lordoz.

Therefore, school hygiene attaches very important to the correct device of the desk and the right landing of children.

The capture of segments of the chest occurs also by 21-25 years. Therefore, it is necessary to protect the chest of children from deformations and injuries.

Skull bones The child grows mostly for 1 year of life, and the development of the facial part of the skull begins at 13-14 years.

The process of ossification brush hands It is of great importance in hygienic terms, because With the help of a brush, a child learns to write and produce various labor movements. There are no newborn cakes yet, by 7 years, these bones become clearly visible (on the X-ray). Oveakers wrist in 10-13 years old, phalange of the fingers in 9-11 years. Therefore, a quick letter of low-clad children is not given.

Bones pelvis Oveaken only by 16-17 years, so it is necessary to ensure that children do not carry weights (especially girls who have a misconception of pelvic bones can lead to difficult consequences).

The incorrect organization of educational work and coercion of a child to unbearable for its age exercises of the engine apparatus can bring him great harm and to be the cause of violations of the children's skeleton. Excessive and unilateral exercises are especially dangerous.

In the work of students, the mobility of the joints is of great importance, which must be developed by systematic exercises, training and rationally organized work.

Muscular system associated with the bone system. Both systems determine the movement of a person.

The muscular system of the child is small, its weight in relation to the weight of the body is less than in adults, and is 8 years old in children - 27.2%, in adolescents 15 years old - 32.6%, and young men - 44.2% of total weight Body.

Muscular tissue in children up to 15 years is richer with water and contains a smaller amount of protein substances. Gradually, it is released from excessive amounts of water (in 15-16 years) and becomes more dense.

Muscle development is uneven. First develop larger muscles (back, abdomen, lumbar region). By 6-7 years, muscles of hand brush are developing, which makes it possible to engage in such works as weaving, modeling and writing. Schoolchildren are 7-8 years old accurate movements are difficult. Students 9-12 years old are improved coordination of movements. Small muscles, very important for labor processes, finish development in 15-16 years.

Labor activity of children and adolescents causes fatigue muscular system. The early restoration of the excitability of muscle tissue, an increase in elasticity and contractile capacity favors the energetic flow of oxygen into the body. Therefore, it is necessary to observe the hygiene of the muscular system of students - to organize physical exercises and sports activities with gradual involvement in the active state of an increasing number of muscle groups, and it is also necessary to not burden overly their muscles, to dose the load and make pauses for recreation. As a result of the movement, they will become familiar, pleasant and will not cause early fatigue.

Under the anatomical-physical features of the development of children, the complex of morphofunctional characteristics of the body, which determines the supply of its physical forces. These include the growth and weight of the body.

In order to control the development of the child, an assessment of the change in body sizes, physique, appearance, muscular, efficiency is necessary.

Dynamic monitoring of the physical development of the child allows not only to identify the individual features of growth and development, but also to assess the state of the child's health. Violations of the growth rates and the development of the child are associated with many diseases, may arise when exposed to adverse factors of the external environment. They are an indication for an in-depth child survey.

In the physical development of children, the uneven increases of the increase in certain parameters, thereby be distinguished by certain age periods, the so-called periods of physiological expenditures that affect the functioning of a number of organs and systems. After birth, there is a gradual decrease in the growth rates of growth and body weight. The growth rate of growth has a craniocaudal gradient, and the lower body segments grow faster than the top. For example, feet grow faster than the legs, the legs are faster than the hips, etc. Gradually forms a female or male body type.

Body mass

The body's mass of a full-time child's body ranges from 2500 to 4000 g and on average, 3200 g. Immediately after birth, all children note a physiological decline, which should not be more than 8% of the body weight of the child at birth. The maximum drop in the body weight of the child occurs to the 4-6th day, and then there is an increase in its increasing, and by the 10th day of life, the child has the same mass indicators as at birth. Physiological loss of body weight is due to intense physiological processes in the body. It occurs, firstly, due to loss with breathing, through the skin and mucous membranes (75%). The remaining 25% of physiological loss falls on the loss of liquid with a primary fender (MECONOM) and urine, as well as due to the possible vomiting of swallowed ocoplodic waters.

The body weight of the child largely depends on the timing of the applying to the mother's chest.

In repeated mothers with earlier and complete lactation, newborn children lose body weight less. Early attachment of the child to the chest stimulates lactation from the mother.

After the 10th day of life, an intensive weight gain begins, which is on average 25-30 g per day. Then the dark increases of body mass slow down and by the end of the year reach 10-15 g per day.

There are formulas for calculating the mass of the child at different ages. In the first year of life, during the first six months, the child's body increases every month increased by 800 g, and in the second half of the year - for 400 in this way, the mass of the child's body will be:

body mass of the child at birth + (800 * 6) + (400 * 6), i.e. approximately 10.5 kg.

The body weight of the child after a year is calculated according to the following formulas: aged 2 to 5 years: 19 - 2 (5 - n), from 6 to 11 years: 19 + 3 (N - 5), from 12 to 16 years: 5n - 20, where N is the number of years of the child.

More accurate assessments of the body weight of the child can be held on tables.

Height

The main criterion for the physical development of the child is growth, since this value is most stable and varies only towards the increase. In order to avoid the terminological confusion, we clarify: the term "growth" is used when measurements are carried out in a child capable of standing, that is, after 2 years. At an earlier age, all the measurements of the child are spent lying< поэтому приемлем термин «длина тела».

The length of the body of newborn children ranges from 46 to 56 cm, the boys are on average body length more than girls. Children who have a body length of less than 45 cm are premature.

In the first two days after birth, the length of the body is slightly reduced by resorption of the generic tumor. Then the increase begins.

The calculation of the body's length of the child up to the year is made on the basis of quarterly add. In the first quarter, a child adds 3 cm every month, i.e. 9 cm for the quarter; in the second quarter of 2.5 cm for each month - 7.5 cm per quarter, in the third quarter of 1.5-2 cm per month - 3.5-6 cm per quarter, in the 4th quarter of 1.5 cm for Month - 4.5 cm per quarter.

By 4 years, the growth of the child doubles, by 12 years - triples. After a year, the growth slows down, but periods of its acceleration are noted: boys are 4-5.5 years old, in girls after 6 years. Then the second stretching period comes: boys - from 13.5 to 15.5 years, from girls from 8.5 to 11.5 years.

Pull out at the expense of the lower extremities occurs in boys in 10-11 years old, in girls at 8.5 and 11-12 years. Growth ceases in boys aged 17-25 years, girls - aged 16-25 years.

For indicative counting of children's growth, you can use a number of formulas.

1. At the age of 4, the child must have an increase of 100 cm. At the age of less than 4 years, its growth can be calculated according to the following formula: 100 - 8 (4 - n), where N is the number of years. At the age of 4 years old, the growth will be equal to: 100 + 6 (n - 4).

2. The growth of the child from 2 to 15 years is: 130 cm (8-year-old child growth) - 7n (for children under 8 years old) and 130 + 5N (for children over 8 years old), where N is the number of years.

Changing the circle of the head

At birth, the child's head circle on average is 34 - 36 cm. In children up to 6 months of age, the head circle increases every month by an average of 1.5 cm. By 6 months it will be 43 cm. In the following months (up to 1 year) It increases by an average of 0.5 cm. aged 1 to 5 years, the child's head circle increases by an average of 1 cm per year. By 5 years it will be 50 cm. After 5 years, the head circumference is increased annually by 0.6 cm.

Changing the busty circumference

Breast circle - a parameter reflecting changes in the transverse sizes of the body. The chest circumference shows the degree of breast development, closely correlates with the functional performance of the breath, the development of the muscular apparatus of the chest subcutaneous fat layer on the chest.

At birth, the trigger of the baby's chest cell is usually less than the circle of the head per 1-2 cm and is equal to 32-34 cm. In 4 months of the circle of the head and chest become about the same, and then the chest circumference increases faster than the head circumference.

The approximate calculation of the circle of the chest in children under 1 year can be carried out as follows: the circumference of the chest of a 6-month-old child is 45 cm, for each missing month you need to subtract 2 cm, for each subsequent month add 0.5 cm.

Chest circumference in a child aged 2 to 15 years:

a) for children up to 10 years: 63 - 1.5 (10 - n), where N is the number of years (up to 10); 63 - a 10-year-old breast circle, see;

b) for children older than 10 years: 63 + 3 (n - 10), where N is the age of children (over 10), 3 is the average increase in the circumference of the chest per year in children over 10 years old, see

Change of body proportions

With age, the child changes the ratios of the size of various parts of the body. Thus, the ratio between the head height and the length of the body is gradually changing. Relatively stable torso length, in all age periods it is equal to 40% of the total length of the body. The length of the legs and the upper part of the person in children is the most dynamic values, besides, they are sensitive indicators of possible changes in the proportions of the body.

In practice, the determination of the ratio between the upper and lower segments of the body has been applied. In the first weeks of life, the ratio is (1.7-1.5): 1; In the period of Pubertata it is equal to one.

With age, the ratio between the length and transverse sizes of the body changes. The change in these parameters gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmoniousness of the child's development.

Body surface

In all periods of childhood, and especially in the first year of life, there is a pattern: the smaller the child, the greater its relative surface of the body per 1 kg of mass. For example, a newborn per 1 kg of mass accounts for 0.06 m2 of the body surface, and in an adult - only 0.02 m 2.

Approximately the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe body 5 (m 2) of a child of any age can be calculated according to the following formulas:

1. For children with a body weight from 1.5 kg and more:

S \u003d (4m + 7) / (M + 90),

where m is the mass of the body.

In Numertel M, rounded to 0.25; In the denominator - up to 1 kg.

2. For children up to 9 years old: the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe body has a one-year-old child is 0.43 m2, on each missing month, 0.02 m 2 is taken from this value, 0.06 m2 is added for each subsequent year.

3. For children 10-17 years old:

where n is the age of a child, years.

With age, the ratio of areas of individual parts of the body changes. For children, older than the year are focused on the following ratio ("Rule of nine"):

head and neck - 9%;

upper limbs: Each - 9%; both - 18%;

lower limbs: Each - 18%; Both - 36%; Torso: Front surface - 18%; Rear surface - 18%; The overall surface is 36%.

Method of anthropometric measurements

The length of the body in children of the first 2 years of life is measured in the lying position using a horizontal growth rate, having a movable bar for the legs. A centimeter scale is applied to the length of the growth rate. The child is placed on the header with his back with straightened torso and legs, the macushkin touches the still plank. In this case, the orphanage and the top edge of the outer auditory passage are in one horizontal plane. The rolling line of the rodtomer is tight to the heels. The distance between the moving and stationary planks corresponds to the length of the child's body.

The growth of the child over the age of two is measured at a special rodtomer with a vertical strip. At the same time, the child concerns the heels of mi, buttocks, an inter-docular part of the body and the back of the vertical strip, on which centimeter divisions are applied. Movable Plank Rostomer falls on the head of the child. In this case, the line conditionally connecting the outer angle of the eye and the auditory passage must be perpendicular to the vertical bar. The growth of the seated child is measured on a rhodger with a special seat.

Body mass is measured on mechanical or electronic scales. For children under 2 years, at first weigh the diaper on which the child is put and then the child himself. To determine the mass of the child from the result obtained, the mass of the diaper is deducted.

To assess the physical development of children, table data of growth, body weight, head and chest, corresponding to the child's age are used. This uses scales in 7 intervals. If any parameter is placed on an interval from 25 to 75 cents, then this indicator is regarded (as the average, within up to 10 centles - below average, and within 75 - 90 cents - above average, from 10 to 3 centles - low, And from 90 to 97 cents - high. Indicators overlooking 3 and 97 centles are regarded as pathological, as a rule, indicating any disease in a child.

The mass of children over 2 years is measured in the morning on an empty stomach on special medical libes with an accuracy of 50 g. At the same time, the child is stripped as much as possible and deducted from the result of a lot of clothing left.

The body weight is the most labile indicator of physical development. Children of the 1st year of life more often noted a decrease in body weight (hypotrophy). It is believed that the hypotrophy of the I degree occurs with a decrease in body weight by 10-15% of the average, II degree - by 15-30%, III degree - more than 30%.

With anthropometry, the circle of the head is measured using a soft tissue tape. The tape is superimposed behind the occipital point, in front of the abnormal arcs. The circle of the chest is measured with calm breathing, at the height of inhalation and exhalation. Measurement is made sitting. The centimeter tape is superimposed behind the lower corners of the blade with the allotted hands. Then the hands are lowered, and the ribbon is performed in front of the nipples. In girls with well-developed lactic glands, a centimeter tape is applied over the milk glands at the place of the transition of the skin from the chest at the gland.

If necessary, measure the circumference of the abdomen, the thighs, as well as the length and variations of the row of bone formations using special circulas. At the same time, various indices of physical development are determined.

Increasing body weight relative to growth by 15-25% is called CE degree patrofy, from 25 to 50% - parametrophy of the II degree, by more than 50% - parametrophy of the III degree. Parroids are diagnosed in children of the 1st year of life. In children, older than 1 year, this phenomenon is called obesity, but the degree of obesity are the same.

The lack of development of the subcutaneous body layer in children of the 1st year of life often leads to a height delay. Parallel delay in body weight and growth is called hypostatic. Hypostatic should be distinguished from shortness associated with the characteristics of the constitution, hereditary predisposition. This form of low physical development is called hypoplasia.

However, a group of low-voltage children with diseases accompanied by anomalies of the bone system should be distinguished: ahondroplasia, hondodroid designe, periosteal dysplasia, spondylophyphizar dysplasia and, finally, dwarf.

Children meets both tallness. It should also be divided into normal and pathological. There are tallness transient and preserving until the end of the stretch period. An example of transient tallness can be considered the weight and growth of children born from mothers, diabetes patients. Sometimes great growth in children is associated with the hyperfunction of the thyroid gland or adrenal glands (adrenital syndrome).

Giantism in children can be associated with hyperproduction of the tumor of the adenogipophosis of a somatotropic hormone.

High growth in healthy children can be constitutionally determined.

To a large extent, the physical development of children depends on the living conditions. So, with a shortage of some food ingredients (vitamin A, zinc, iodine, etc.) physical development slows down. On the contrary, the redundancy of nutrition can accelerate biological development.

The day of the day also affects the physical development of the child. Loadability adversely affects the development of the bone-muscular apparatus. However, and reinforced non-age load lead to a slowdown or stop physical development. The emotional state of the child also affects the pace of physical development that can slow down when prevailing negative emotions. A certain impact on the growth and development of children has sharp and especially chronic diseases.

In some regions of the globe, environmental factors affect the physical development of children. So, the highlands usually slows down growth, and a hot climate in a number of regions, on the contrary, contributes to growth.

In 70-80 XX century In Russia and in a number of other countries, acceleration was observed - accelerating the growth of children, as well as the offensive of puberty at an earlier age. By 90 This trend has decreased.

Brain. Its sizes and weight at birth is relatively large. In the hemispheres of the big brain of the newborn, the furrows and major gyruses are already well expressed. Gray and white substance are poorly differentiated. Nervous cord cells do not have process (dendrites and axon), and their structural development ends only to 7-8 years. Myelination of individual cells and conductive paths ends in different times: intracranial nerves - by 3 - 4 months, cranial (with the exception of wandering) - by 1 year 3 months, pyramid tract - by 2-3 years, the wandering nerve - by 3-4 years . A plurality of impulses entering the bark cause passive, long-term braking, so the children of the first months of life are sleeping most of the day.

As the crust of the movement ripens becomes increasingly accurate, purposeful.

Spinal cord. Its length increases mainly in the chest and slower than the size of the spinal cord channel, so its lower segment is located in a newborn at the III level of the lumbar vertebra, and by 4 -5 - between I and II lumbar vertebrae, as in an adult that It is almost important to consider when conducting a spinal puncture. At the level of the horns of the spinal cord, the myelination of which occurs still intrauterine, the arcs of congenital unconditional reflexes are mainly closed.

Peripheral nervous system: Rare, insufficiently amelinated nerve fibers, the myelination of which ends on the 2nd year of life.

Vegetative nervous system.The peripheral branches of the vagus nerve finish their development and myelinization by 3 to 4 years. By this time, the central regulation of the activities of the respiratory and blood circulation is established. The consequence of this is that in young children, the physiological sympathicotonium is, in the 3rd year, a replacing Vagotonia.

Newbornmost of the day sleeps, the gaze does not record. When unfolding, it pulls out, takes the physiological, embryonic position, leading bent hands and legs to the stomach. The movements are non-coordinated, athettos-like, the head hangs. The tone of the muscle flexors is raised. Congenital unconditional reflexes are stably caused - oral (search, palm-oral rotting, trump, sucking); Spinal - Protective (turning the head of the side in the stomach position), supports (standing throughout the foot with the support of the armpit), automatic walking (crosses), crawling (repelled with legs from the support in the position on the stomach and moves), grasping (compresses the finger, touched To the palm, hanging in the hands).

Child 3 months More active. Total sleep time 18 - 20 hours per day. Fixes the eyes, smiles, recognizes the mother, Gulit. Movement becomes more focused: keeps her head well in a vertical position and lying on the stomach. Hyperthonus of flexors, tension symptoms, athettos-like movements are disappeared, some of the unconditional congenital reflexes (protective, grabbing, support and automatic walking, crawling, oral, except sucking) fade away. An appreciable early scoring ultra-risk top reflex Landau appears (in the stomach position raises the head, the upper part of the body and hands; leaning on his hands, is held in this position). Conditional reflexes from visual and hearing analyzers based on food dominant are easily formed, distinguished by reflex at feeding time.

Child 6 months Move, active, emotional. Sleeps 16 - 18 h. Sits. Move hands targeted. Well distinguishes familiar faces, imitating adults, pronounces individual syllables. From congenital reflexes, a sucking is preserved, lower (Landau's upper reflex is joined (in the stomach position lifts and extensions the legs). The formation of complex conditional (behavioral) reflexes continues.

The child has 9 months In behavior, signs of complex analyzer and synthetic work of the crust begin to manifest. She strives for communication, he understands the speech, performs simple tasks, says individual words, manifests its desires. Sleeps 14-16 hours per day. It sits well and sits down myself, gets up, holding over the support, and stands with the support. Quickly crashes.

Child 1 - 1.5 years Very movable, curious, sociable. By 1.5 - 2 years says short phrases. It distinguishes odors, sounds, independently eats a spoon. Performs uncomplicated tasks. Takes up for tidy. Sleeps 14 - 16 hours per day. Walks yourself.

Child 2 - 3 yearscontact, friendly. By this time, the primary differentiation of nerve cells and myelinations of spit and peripheral nerves energize. A child cannot analyze everything independently and asks about adults (the period of questions). Traffic continue to differentiate.

In a child 3 - 8 years old Differentiation most of the large brain bark ends. Especially forming complex conventional reflexes. Well developed motility. The identity of the child is formed. Speech becomes a coherent, the child can convey his thoughts and impressions, easily masters the skills of reading and writing.

In school and adolescencethe analyzing and synthesizing activities of the large brain core are improved. Discordination of hormonal processes in the pubertal period leads to the instability of the mood, excessive efficacy, a decrease in muscle tone and some discoority of movements, functional changes in internal organs, vascular manifestations.

This period of the child's development is characterized by its physical and mental disturbance. Preschool children speak well in their native language, it is quite possible to decline and suits. During this period, the individuality of the child is manifested, its emotions become more restrained.

The main diseases of this period are diseases of the respiratory system (especially the upper respiratory tract), as well as infectious diseases, since children are gradually entering society, begin to contact with a large number of people.

At this age, physiological changes occur: at first, the child's growth slows down to 4-6 cm per year, and later accelerates to 6-8 cm. Addness in weight (in kilograms) looks like this:

- at 4 years - 1.6;

- at age 5 - about 2;

- At 6 years - 2.5.

For this period, the child's development is characterized by the following anatomy-physiological features.

1. The skin thickening occurs, but the danger of supercooling or overheating does not disappear.

2. The osenation of the bone system has not yet been completed. The skeleton of the child in shape is similar to the skeleton of an adult, but not so strong. At this age, such diseases appear as scoliosis, so it is precisely for this age that constant control over the posture and the distribution of the load on the body is very important. The ribs of the child take the same position as in adults; The chest becomes a cylindrical shape.

3. The cardiovascular system is characterized by a decrease in the pulse rate (85-90 beats per minute to 7 years), a gradual increase in blood pressure (by 7 years - 104/67 mm Hg. Art.).

4. At the age of 6-7 years, growth is accelerated - the so-called first physiological stretch, at the same time there are differences in the behavior of boys and girls. This is due to changes in the endocrine system of the child: the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pituitary gland. Also "preparation" of the sex glands to the period of puberty occurs.

5. In preschool age, the work of the child's immune system is improved, so many diseases are easier than before.

6. For the operation of the nervous system at a given age, the layout of the foundations of intelligence is characterized. Children willingly memorize poems, painted with hobby, compose, reinpecifying the heard fairy tales. The main rules of morality and morality are also laid. Children of this age are inquisitive: constantly ask the question "Why?".

Schoolchildren from 7 to 11 years old are among the children of younger school age. During this period, the child's memory is improved, coordination of movements. In connection with these physiological characteristics, the child appears to study: letters, reading, account.

From the beginning of study, some problems arise: the child is less spent in air, the child's day mode changes and violates, including the power mode. As a result, the likelihood of such diseases increases as infectious, allergic, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal. Also at this age, the likelihood and danger of child injuries.

The anatomy-physiological features of children of primary school age include the following.

1. Stabilizes growth rate: the growth of the child at 8 years is 130 cm, at 11 years old - about 145 cm.

2. Some accumulations of body fat cells under the skin in the chest and abdomen, which in the absence of due control can lead to obesity. Less dangerous

supplements and overheating are becoming, as the formation of sweat glands ends.

3. Increases in size and the muscular system of the child is strengthened. Now the schoolboy becomes physically stronger and efficient. His fingers are subject to more subtle work: a letter, modeling.

4. The growth and strengthening of bones continues, but the final ossification has not yet happened, and therefore the risk of spinal curvature remains due to incorrect posture when reading and writing. The chest is increasingly actively involved in breathing, its volume increases. By 11 years, the differences in the structure of the skeleton of boys and girls begin to appear: the pelvis in girls is wider, there is a tendency to expand the thighs.

5. The formation of the structure of the pulmonary tissue is completed, the diameter of the air pathways (trachea, bronchi) is increasing. An increase in the mucous membrane ceases to create a serious danger in diseases of the respiratory system. The respiratory frequency decreases at 10 years to 20 times per minute.

6. The cardiovascular system continues the tendency to reduce the pulse rate (from 5 to 11 years from 100 to 80 shots per minute) and an increase in blood pressure (110/70 mm Hg. Art.).

7. Digestive and digestive glands are well developed, actively function, the digestive process is practically no different from the digestion of adults. The intestinal emptying frequency is 1-2 times a day.

8. The structure of the kidneys and other urinary organs is almost like adults. Gradually increases the daily amount of urine.

9. The protective forces of the body are well developed. Laboratory indicators of the immune system practically correspond to similar adult indicators.

10. Ends the development of the endocrine system. There are signs of puberty. In the 9-10 years old girls, buttocks are rounded, nipples of the mammary glands are slightly raised, breast gland swells in 10-11 years. The boys in 10-11 years old begins the growth of genital organs.

11. The development of the nervous system is characterized by the expansion of analytical capabilities, the child reflects on his actions and actions around them. However, in the behavior of children of younger school age, there are still many game elements, they are not yet capable of long-term concentration. Some children, especially those who brought up without peers, are closed, with difficulty leaving the team, which will later be affected by their mental type of character.

Children of senior school age (from 12 to 18 years old) are otherwise referred to as expensive, or adolescents. This period of the child's life is characterized by a sharp change in the work of the endocrine glands. For girls, this is the time of fast puberty, for boys - the beginning of this process. This period is characterized by the completion of the identity of the child.

Physical changes in the body are completed, the consequence of which is a large mental and emotional load. Against this background, adolescent ailments are typical: dizziness and headaches caused by a reduced tone of brain vessels - vegetative dystonia. Also typical of this age are diseases of the gastrointestinal tract: gastritis, duodenites, ulcerative disease.

The anatomy-physiological features of children of senior school age include the following.

1. The structure of the chest, pelvis and the bone system is generally similar to their structure in adults. The skeletal is ends, so incorrectly struck fractures, the curvature of the spine, the bones of the hands and feet after Rakhita and other flaws to correct is very difficult or not possible.

2. The cardiovascular system in its characteristics is also approaching the structure in adults. Pulse frequency - approximately 60-80 shots per minute, blood pressure - 120/70 mm Hg. Art.

3. Changes continue in the endocrine system. In this regard, the following physiological changes occur:

- Girls: in 12-13 years old there is an increase in the chest glands, the pigmentation of nipples is manifested, menstruation begin; In 13-14 years, the growth of hair cover in the field of armpits, menstruation is distinguished by irregularity; In 14-15 years, there is a change in the shape of the buttocks and the pelvis, which acquire a form characteristic of adult women; In 15-16 years, angry rash appears, due to the improper work of the endocrine system during puberty, menstruation is regular; In 16-18 years, the growth of the skeleton ends;

- The boys: In 11-12 years, the prostate gland increases, the growth of the larynx is accelerated, after which the voice breaking; In 12-13 years, the growth of genital organs begins, the hair cover appears on the genital organs; In 13-14 years, the growth rate and the development of genital organs increases, a seal appears in the near-block region, voice starts breaking; In 14-15 years, a change in voice is completed, hair appears on the face, the first ejaculation is observed; In 15-16 years, the ripening of genital cells - spermatozoa begins; At 16-17 years old, hair growth throughout the body continues and even increases, the spermatozoa ripening occurs; In 17-21, the growth of the skeleton stops.

4. For the development of the nervous system, the formation and improvement of neuropsychic activity is characterized, the child is distracted from visual-shaped thinking and prefers abstract thinking.

There are congenital diseases that have passed to the child "by inheritance" from their parents, most of them are transmitted at the genome. Let's list these diseases.

Anemia. This is a number of various pathological conditions that manifest themselves with a decrease in hemoglobin content and (or) erythrocytes in the blood. Some forms of anemia are acquired. Anemia can be divided into groups by type of causes of the disease:

Posthemorrhagic caused by large blood loss;

Hemolytic caused by increased destruction of red blood cells;

Anemia due to violation of erythrocyte education.

According to the characteristic dimensions of erythrocytes, anemia is divided into microcytic (with a decrease in size), normocitar (when maintaining normal size), macrocyte (with increasing erythrocyte size).

According to the degree of saturation of erythrocyte, hemoglobin anemia is hypochromic (reduced saturation), normochromic (normal saturation), hyperchromic (increased saturation of erythrocyte hemoglobin).

By the course of the disease, anemia is sharp (developing quickly, proceed with pronounced clinical signs) and chronic (develop gradually, signs at first can be expressed as minimal).

Anemia caused by the disadvantage of certain substances (iron deficiency, protein-deficient), appear due to insufficient delivery to the organism of substances necessary for hemoglobin synthesis.

Among congenital forms of anemia, the most significant are the following types.

1. Anemia Fanconi. Manifests in young children, boys are sick more often. Patients are lagging behind in physical and mental development. There are violations of eye development, kidneys, hands, microcephaly (reduction of the sizes of the head), an excessive amount of pigment in the skin, as a result of which it darkens. At about 5 years, the lack of formation of red blood cells and platelets (wheelchain) is found, as a result of which bleeding appears, an increase in the size of the liver (spleen and lymph nodes do not change in size), changes are occurring other organs and tissues.

2. Family hypoplastic anemia Esture - Dameshka. This disease is characterized by changes in blood (insufficient number of erythrocytes) without the development of malfunctions.

3. Partial Giapoplastic Anemia Josephs - Daimond Blefena. This type of anemia appears in newborns. The disease is developing gradually: there is a pallor of the skin and mucous membranes, lethargy, the appetite is worse; In the blood, the content of hemoglobin and red blood cells is reduced.

Treatment. Transfusion of the erythrocytic mass, the removal of the spleen or embolization, drugs for suspending bleeding.

Bronchial asthma. This is a chronic disease characterized by acute attacks of choking caused by the deterioration of the bronchi's passability due to their spasm, edema of the mucous membrane and excess mucus formation. The disease can be caused by hereditary predisposition, the presence of allergies that cause the respiratory tract swelling, a violation of the hormonal balance in the body.

Attacks in children can begin at the age of 2-5 years. They are caused by contact with allergen, acute respiratory diseases, angina, physical and mental injury, in some cases the preventive vaccinations and the introduction of gamma globulin can be.

Attimes, sufferer are often preceded by the symptoms harbingers: lethargy, excessive excitation of the child, irritability, capriciousness, the child may refuse food; Skin covers are pale, the eyes are unnaturally shine, pupils are expanding; Itching itching in the throat, sneezing, discharge from a watery nose, shaking, dry wheels against the backdrop of free uncomplicated breathing. Such a situation can continue from a few minutes to several days.

Children of senior school age tolerate these symptoms are easier than younger schoolchildren, since they are more revealed by the respiratory tract. The attacks cause an absence of appetite, increased sweating, circles under the eyes. Gradually, breathing becomes more free, a thick, viscous, whitish color of the wet is distinguished when coughing. After some time, the condition improves, but the patient complains of constant malaise.

Astmatic statusthis state is called when the suffocation does not pass after treatment. This condition of the body, depending on the causes caused by its causes, can manifest itself in two versions. In the first case, it is the result of taking antibiotics, sulfonamides, enzymes, aspirin and other drugs and develops very quickly. The second option may be caused by improper treatment or reception of an excessive dose of drugs. In this case, all the symptoms appear and grow gradually, over time.

The asthmatic syndrome is manifested in such symptoms as a breakdown of breathing and cardiac activity, the pathology of the functions of the central nervous system, leading to initiation, delusions, cramps, loss of consciousness. And than the younger child, the more brightly manifests these symptoms.

Treatment. It is carried out taking into account the individual and age characteristics of the child. At the first signs of an impending attack, a child needs to ensure peace in a clean, airroom, distract its attention. It is necessary to drip 2-3 drops of 2% ephedrine solution in the nose and carry out this procedure every 3-4 hours. Also, the child is also given a drink containing Eufillin and Ephedrine. It is impossible to resort to warming procedures, as this may aggravate the situation.

With a worsening of the state of the patient, a 0.1% solution of adrenaline hydrochloride with a 5% solution of hydrochloride ephedrine is subcutaneously introduced.

In the treatment of children of senior school age, it is permissible to use some aerosol preparations - Salbutamol (Ventoline), Alupent (Astmopent), but taking into account the individual characteristics of children.

The reception of drugs must be continued for 5-7 days after the attacks, it is accompanied by massage and physiotherapy procedures.

Prevention of attacks is the treatment of chronic infections and allergic conditions.

Hydrocephalus. This disease is caused by the accumulation of liquid in the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord channel. The disease appears in disruption of suction or excessive formation of liquids in the cavities of the brain and the disturbance of its outflows during edema, tumors due to the inflammatory process.

Hydrocephalus is manifested by signs of increased intracranial pressure: headache, nausea, vomiting, violation of some functions (hearing, vision). Other symptoms are possible.

Distinguish the acute and chronic phases of the disease. Acute stage is characterized by the appearance of symptoms of the disease that caused hydrocephalus, i.e. the inflammatory process. For the chronic stage, the manifestation of signs of the hydrocephalus itself is characterized.

Hydrocephalus is called congenital, if the disease developed in the womb. At the same time, the child is born with a large head, which in the development of the disease over time increasingly increases (the head takes the shape of the ball). Children with such a disease behind both physical development (bad and later hold their heads, go, weak), and in mental development. With the closure of rodnikov, the child appears symptoms, indicating a violation of the outflow of the spinal-brain fluid.

Treatment.They are carried out only under the hospital's conditions by using drugs that reduce intracranial pressure, and removing excess fluids, sometimes the reasons for the disruption of the fluid outflow are opened. Next, children are observed from neuropathologists.

Congenital hypotrophy.This disease is a congenital nutritional disorder, as a result of which not enough nutrients enter the body. The disease may be due to a violation of the course of pregnancy against the background of a violation of the blood supply to the placenta or intrauterine fetal infection; Mother's disease during pregnancy, improper nutrition, as well as smoking and alcohol consumption; The action of other harmful factors.

Three stages of the disease distinguish:

- I degree: subcutaneous fiber is narrowed at all parts of the body, except for the person. There are 11-20% lack of body weight. Child growth and mental development are not slow. Characteristic absence of appetite and sleep disorder. Excretory processes in normal. Skin covers pale, muscle tone and tissue elasticity below normal;

- II degree: the subcutaneous fiber continues to be drunk on the whole body, on the abdomen and chest it almost disappears. The child begins to lag in physical and mental development, weakness, lethargy, small mobility appear. The color of the face (earthy tint), the tone of the muscles and the elasticity of the fabrics deteriorates sharply. Often the manifestation of signs of avitaminosis, Rakhita. Chair is broken;

- III degree: Extremely exhaustion is manifested. Practically disappears subcutaneous fiber. The child does not gain weight, and sometimes even loses weight. Progresses a violation of the child's development, his face is covered with wrinkles. The color changes, the moisy membranes moisture disappears. All muscles are extremely weakened, difficulty breathing and disorders of the cardiovascular system may occur. Urination is rare, urine is not enough, constipation appear and other stool disorders. There is no immunity.

Treatment.In the treatment of congenital hypotrophy, it is necessary to take into account the causes of the disease and its degree. The treatment is reduced to eliminating the causes of the disease, the care and proper nutrition of the child (in the absence of maternal milk, artificial feeding is used, in severe cases - intravenous: drip nutrients), therapy of complications of the disease (infectious diseases, metabolic pathology), the treatment of avitaminosis, massage, Medical physical education. It is recommended to further correct child care, regular outdoor walks, physical activity.

The prevention of hypotrophy is a healthy lifestyle of a pregnant woman: the correct nutrition and the day of the day, the refusal of bad habits. It is also necessary to monitor the development of the fetus for the purposes of timely detection of symptoms of the disease.

Capacked diseases caused by certain reasons after the birth of a child, as a result of its contact with the external environment. Let's list these diseases.

Acquired hypoplastic anemia. This type of anemia appears in violation of the blood-made bone marrow function. The reason for the occurrence of the disease can be used by certain drugs, the pathology of the immune system, the effects of ionizing radiation, chronic infectious diseases. The main manifestations of the disease: the pallor of the skin, the bleeding of the mucous membranes, frequent bleeding. Infectious complications can also be observed - pneumonia, inflammation of the middle ear, pylitis, inflammation of the mucous membranes and rectum. Internal organs do not increase, with the exception of the liver.

Treatment. Transfusion of the erythrocytic mass, the use of hormonal therapy. If necessary, blocking of blood vessels of a part or a whole spleen with leaving this organ in place, rarely - bone marrow transplantation. Blood-link drugs are used.

Prevention measures include continuous monitoring of blood condition with long-term treatment, avoiding other harmful factors.

Anorexia. The disease is manifested by a violation or lack of appetite, even if the body needs food. The violation is caused by the incorrect activities of the food center. The cause of the disease is excessive emotional arousal, mental illness, disorders of the endocrine system, intoxication, metabolic disorders, diseases of the digestion organs, irregular monotonous nutrition, the use of drugs of an unpleasant taste, which violate the functions of the gastrointestinal tract or acting on the central nervous system. The long-term course of the disease leads to a decrease in immunity, the resistance of the child's body.

Treatment. First of all, the elimination of the cause that caused anorexia, or to minimize it. Preparations that increase appetite, vitamins, hormones are used, in severe cases - intravenous administration of nutrient solutions.

Especially it is necessary to highlight nervical Psychic Anorexia. This disease is caused by a conscious refusal of a child from food. This violation more often appears in girls in adolescence when they seem to be too thick. Conscious restriction in food leads to physiological and mental disorders. Girls also use various drugs that negatively affect their faster organism. This type of anorexia is treated with psychotherapy.

Bronchitis. Bronchitis is called inflammation of the bronchi against the background of the defeat of their mucous membranes. Medicine isolated acute and chronic bronchitis. Usually, the children fall into sharp bronchitis, which is often a manifestation or complication of respiratory infections, less often arises before the emergence of measles and cough.

Children suffering from chronic diseases of the upper respiratory tract are more often sick with sharp bronchitis. The peak of morbidity falls on spring and autumn. Symptoms of the onset of the disease are cough and rhinitis, a gradual increase in temperature. After 1-2 days, sputum is released, night cough.

Treatment. The sick child needs to provide warmth and peace, give hot drink (tea with lime, honey, raspberry). Antibiotics, antiboting agents and sulfonamides are used in the case of an increase in temperature above 39 ° C or in the threat of infectious diseases. Inhalation is shown for thinning sputum. In the absence of high temperatures, banks, mustard pieces, are used hot wraps.

Chronical bronchitis In children - more rare phenomenon. It appears as a disease of the nasopharynx, against the background of diseases of the cardiovascular system (stagnant phenomena in the lungs), the pathology of the secretion of glands. The predisposition to chronic bronchitis increases in children suffering from congenital immunodeficiency, impaired of the functions of bronchi, vices of the lungs. In chronic bronchitis, the pathology of the bronchi's passivity may not be observed, and then his symptoms become cough, dry and wet wheels.

The main direction of the treatment of chronic bronchitis is to increase the resistance of the body. More vitamins are included in the child's nutrition, with severe cases, antibiotics and sulfonamides are used, physiotherapy procedures are used. In the absence or improper treatment, chronic bronchitis can lead to the development of pneumonia, in some cases - bronchial asthma. The prevention of chronic bronchitis is proper nutrition, timely and proper treatment of infectious and inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

Stomach ache. The appearance of pain in the epigastric area signals the diseases of the abdominal organs or other internal organs. The causes of such pains can be diverse, up to the signs of pneumonia, so it is very important to pay attention to the complaints of the child.

Among the main factors of the occurrence of pain in the abdomen you can allocate deformation of the intestinal walls, an increase in the lumen in it, intestinal spasms; inflammation in the abdominal cavity; lack of oxygen or an abnormal arrangement of the intestine; displacement of the position of the internal organs; infectious diseases; stool violation; pancreatitis, inflammation of the pancreas and gallbladder; ulcerative diseases of the digestive organs; various forms of gastritis, inflammation of appendicitis; Annick, diabetes mellitus, etc.

Treatment. With the appearance of pain in the belly, the child requires an inspection of a doctor and further examination: analysis of blood and urine, etc. Before the final formulation of the diagnosis, it is not recommended to conduct drug treatment, as well as the warming of patients.

Hospital treatment or outpatient treatment must be monitored by analyzes. Also useful with abdominal pains to explore the digestive, abdominal cavity organs, an excluding system of ultrasound methods.

Hemorrhagic diathesis.Hemorrhagic diathesis is a disease accompanied by increased bleeding, which can arise independently or be a consequence of injuries, operating interventions. Acquired hemorrhagic diathesis can be complicing other diseases or the result of an overdose of heparin (reduced blood coagulation), aspirin. According to types of hemorrhages, such types of hemorrhagic diathesis differ as hemorrhage in joints, bruises on the skin, bleeding from the nose, gum.

Treatment. The main direction of treatment is to reduce vessel permeability, as well as improved blood coagulation. Calcium preparations are used, ascorbic acid, sometimes resort to transfusion of platelet mass. After completion of treatment, blood is required. If the disease is incurable, treatment and blood test is carried out regularly.

In order to prevent this disease, it is necessary to organize a full-fledged and regular nutrition of the child, to monitor the presence of vitamins in food, timely and correctly carry out the treatment of colds and infectious diseases.

Ascaridosis. The first signs of the disease ascaridosis are skin rashes, an increase in liver, some changes in the composition of blood, the development of bronchitis, pneumonia is possible. In the future, there are ailments, head and other types of pain, nausea, irritability, sleep disorder and appetite. In the absence of treatment, impaired integrity of the intestine with the development of peritonitis, appendicitis, intestinal obstruction. When penetrating Askarid into other internal organs, their inflammation, abscesses are possible, when Askarid hit in respiratory bodies - violations in their activities and asphyxia (cessation of breathing).

Treatment: Drug therapy (drugs of the Menthazol, Vermox, Piperazine).

Enterobiosis. This disease is caused by the defeat of the withders. The first of his symptoms are the violation of the frequency and type of chair, the pain in the stomach, the perianal itch, against the background of which is possible inflammation of the skin. The diagnosis is made by relying on the results of the scope from the rear pass area.

Treatment It comes down to compliance with the rules of hygiene. Medical treatment is applied only in severe cases (Combatrin, Neglassazole, Piperazine). Used anti-face ointment. Basic prevention measures: compliance with sanitary and hygienic rules, as well as regular medical examination of children.

Dermatomyomy. This disease, in which muscles and skin are affected, is usually found in girls. One of the main causes of the disease is hidden by a malignant tumor. The main symptoms of the disease are pain in the muscles, especially in the muscles of the limbs, neck, weakness, decline in activity, and muscle atrophy is possible. Symptoms of the onset of the disease are swelling of muscles of the larynx, intercostal muscles and diaphragms, resulting in disruption of breathing, voices. Skin covers swell and blush in the joints of the joints and on the face. The main means of recognition is laboratory clinical studies.

Treatment: Long-term medication therapy with hormonal drugs. When treating hormones, constant doctor's control is necessary, since the overdose of hormonal drugs is dangerous.

Diathesis is exudative and catarrhal. This disease is caused by inflammatory processes on the skin. The cause of its occurrence is a violation of metabolism in the intolerance to certain foods. Typically, the children of the first year of life, but perhaps the preservation of the disease in the future.

Treatment: Exception from the ration of products that caused this state. With severe disease, anti-inflammatory baths and other drugs are applied. Prevention is the proper nutrition of a pregnant woman and children of the first years of life.

Nasal bleeding. Usually bleeding occurs in the event of a nasal injury or damage to the nasal mucosa as a result of diseases, mainly infectious. Bleeding is also discovered due to the increase in blood pressure, in diseases of some organs or blood. In addition, bleeding happens in the absence of diseases when sharp changes in meteo conditions (atmospheric pressure, humidity, temperature) occur.

The appearance of blood in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nose does not always indicate nasal bleeding. Sometimes, with nasal bleeding, blood gets into the throat, and vice versa, with the bleeding of digestive organs, the blood can get into the nose.

Treatment. With nasal bleeding, the child needs to ensure peace. At the same time, the upper part of the body and the head should be raised. Otherwise, blood, falling into the throat, can interfere with breathing. To stop bleeding in the nasal pass, cotton wool or march, moistened with hydrogen peroxide solution, and on the nose (sometimes on the back) - cold compress. If bleeding in the absence of injuries are often repeated, this may indicate the presence of a serious illness or a general weakening of the body.

Croup The crushing is called a decrease in the lumen of the larynx as a result of a spasm, at the same time there are hoarse voices, the difficulty of breathing and deep cough. True croup is a consequence of infectious disease - diphtheria, false croup occurs with other types of respiratory disease. In both cases, there is a reduction in the muscles of the larynx due to her edema and inflammation, so the air has been inspired by insulating the larynx irritation. Inflammatory processes also affect voice ligaments, as a result of which changes in the voice occur.

With the true croup, all the symptoms are growing lightning, a loss of votes is possible. After 7-10 days, serious difficulty of breathing appear, skin covers shine, the body is weakened, heart activities are broken, with no treatment, lethal outcome is possible.

False croup is characterized by suddenly emerging symptoms, cough usually arises at night. The voice rarely disappears. It is possible to repeat the attacks.

Treatment. At the first manifestations of symptoms of the cereal, immediately consult a doctor. At the same time, the child needs to provide free access of oxygen, peace and warm drink, it is possible to conduct soda inhalations. After an attack, the child must be under the supervision of the doctor, as repeated attacks are possible.

Laryngospasm. This disease is a sudden attack of a suffocation caused by the spasm of the muscles of the larynx. It is observed in disruption of metabolism, lack of vitamins, salts of some chemical elements. It may also arise if the child breathes by air containing irritating substances.

The laryngospasm is manifested by difficulty in breathing, pale skin, the tension of the muscles involved in breathing. Attacks can last from a few moments to dozen minutes. In the most severe manifestations there are convulsive movements of the limbs, foam of mouth, stop the heart. In the absence of the necessary assistance, death is possible.

Treatment. The child needs to provide free oxygen access, peace, give drinking. One way to stop the attack is the challenge of the vomit reflex. After the attack it is necessary to constantly observe the doctor. Children who endured the attack of laryngospasm, recommend frequent outdoor walks, the use of drugs containing calcium and vitamins, hardening.

Bed-wetting. The causes of the state in which involuntary urination is observed during the sleep period, the set. Among them, the misuse of urinary tract, inflammatory diseases of the urinary system, weakened child's condition after the suffering severe disease. Night incontinence of urine can also serve as a symptom of laryngospasm or epileptic seal, this indicates the presence of other symptoms (irritability, anxiety). Also, the causes of involuntary urination include dementia, urinary sphincter paralysis, hereditary diseases, stresses experienced by the child.

Treatment. If there is this state, you should consult a doctor for examination and formulation of an accurate diagnosis, since the night incontinence of urine can be a precursor of severe diseases in a child.

Pyelitis. Pyelonephritis. These are diseases in which the inflammation of the kidneys and kidney pelvis is observed. Often these diseases occur in parallel. The causes of the disease pyelonephritis are hitting the kidney fabric of pathogens through the urethra and the bladder or transfer of microbes along the blood vessels from the inflammation of inflammation in the body.

Pyelonephritis can be sharp and chronic. Symptoms acutepelonephritis are elevated temperature, sweating, lower back pain at the place of the kidney position, nausea, vomiting, muscle pain; The urine contains an excessive number of leukocytes and microbes. Chronicpyelonephritis can proceed asymptomatic for several years, is detected only in the study of urine. The disease can manifest itself ailment, headache, a slight increase in body temperature. In periods of exacerbation, all signs of acute pyelonephritis are manifested. In the absence of treatment, the kidney tissue is damaged, the mechanism of urinary is disturbed.

Treatment. In acute pyelonephritis, stationary or outpatient treatment under the supervision of the doctor is carried out. The habitated sharp pyelonephritis can go into a chronic shape. In the chronic form of illness, children are constantly under the supervision of a doctor who assigns certain diet and mode. It is recommended to limit salt consumption.

Pleurisy. Most often pleurite, i.e., the inflammation of the serous lung shell (pleura) is complicated by pneumonia or allergic and infectious respiratory diseases. Rarely there are cases of pleurite on the background of rheumatism and tuberculosis.

Purrites can be divided into dry and exudative. Dry pleurisy is characterized by swelling of the pleura, the formation of thickens and irregularities on it. With an exudative pleurisy, the accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity is formed. The liquid can be bleeding, purulent, etc. Also plerites are one-sided and bilateral.

Initially, the disease is manifested by pain in the field of chest, especially when inhaling or cough. Later, weakness appears, the body temperature rises. If the patient put on the side, the pain subsides. Further development of the disease leads to a change in the color of the skin and mucous membranes (pallorium or formation), as well as a breath disruption.

Treatment. Dry pleurisy is cured in a few days, exudative - about a few weeks. You can recognize the disease only in a medical facility where X-ray research and other tests are carried out for this. Next make the analysis of the pleural fluid (if available) and prescribe treatment. It is carried out mainly in the hospital. In the treatment, a specific mode and diet are prescribed. Sometimes surgical intervention is used. After recovery, child inspections are periodically held.

Flatfoot. This is a change in the shape of the foot caused by the formation of its arches. Flatfoot can be transverse, longitudinal, combining both forms. Transverse flatfoot is characterized by flattening the transverse stop of the foot, while its front department rests on the heads of all five hanging bones, and not on the first and fifth, as it should be normal. The longitudinal flatfoot is characterized by flattening the longitudinal arch of the foot, in which case the stop is in contact with the floor almost with all soles area. The causes of the acquired flatfoot are overpressure of the body, the underdevelopment of the muscular-ligament apparatus of the foot, improper shoes, various types of injuries and paralysis of the lower extremities.

With flatfoot, the rapid fatigue of the child is observed when walking, pain in the lower extremities, the appearance of edema at the end of the day. Flat children have a special gait: go, widespread socks, slightly bending joints, while walking with hands. They often wear the inner side of the shoes.

As measures, the prevention of flatfoot can be called the correct selection of shoes, control over the correctness of the child's posture, sports, walking barefoot on the ground and sand.

Treatment.In the event of the appearance of flatfoot, contact the orthopedist. The treatment includes a complex of general and special gymnastics, other physiotherapy methods. Warm baths, massages are also recommended. With severe cases, flatfoot is used orthopedic shoes or surgical intervention.

Pneumonia. Pneumonia is inflammatory lung disease arising independently or against the background of other diseases. Pneumonia causative agents are bacteria and viruses. The probability of the occurrence of pneumonia increases in the supercooling, moral or physical fatigue, other manifestations of the decrease in immunity and the resistance of the body. There is no generally accepted classification of pneumonia, but it is conventionally distinguished by pneumonia is acute and chronic, share and focal, bronchopneumonia.

Acute pneumonia develops quickly, in a few days. The disease proceeds violently, cured completely over time from several days to several weeks. The disease begins with increasing body temperature, chill, cough, pain in side when inhaling, breathing is expensive, with severe cases it is observed.

Chronic pneumonia is a consequence of acute pneumonia or other infectious diseases of the upper respiratory tract (hymorite, ORVI, etc.). The predisposition to chronic pneumonia is observed in weakened children often ill-suffering colds and infectious diseases. Chronic pneumonia proceeds is waveled and characterized by the attenuation periods and the exacerbation of the process. In cases of exacerbation, symptoms of acute pneumonia are observed, they only leak more slowly. Frequent and long bouts of the disease can lead to sclerosis of pulmonary fabric (pneumosclerosis) and the expansion of bronchi - bronchiectases. At the same time, a violation of gas exchange in the body is possible and, as a result, violation of the functions of the cardiovascular system.

Treatment. Antibacterial drugs are applied to the treatment of pneumonia, as well as heating products (banks, mustard pieces, compresses), massages, physiotherapy. It is important to boost the room as possible, where there is a patient, to change bed and underwear in a timely manner, comply with hygienic standards. The most important way to cure the child is a healthy lifestyle: the right nutrition, the day of the day, sports. Pneumonia prevention is to maintain immunity and protective functions of the child's body.

Toxic syndrome. This is a painful state caused by the impact on the body of toxic substances in which disorders of metabolism and functions of various organs and systems are observed, primarily central nervous and cardiovascular systems. The clinical picture is determined mainly by the main disease and the form of toxic syndrome.

Neurotoxicosis (Toxic syndrome caused by the defeat of the central nervous system) begins acutely and is manifested by the excitement by the oppression of consciousness, convulsions.

There is also an increase in temperature to 39-40 ° C, shortness of breath. Rarely appear redness on the skin of the skin, and with a long action of toxic substances, the skin is pale, acquires an earthy tint. The appearance of hepatic insufficiency, acute renal failure, acute coronary (cardiac) insufficiency and other states of extreme severity are possible. Dehydration is gradually developing.

Treatment: Immediate hospitalization. In the hospital, measures to eliminate dehydration, convulsion, violation of the work of vital systems of the body are carried out.

Schogrena disease. Systemic chronic autoimmune disease, characterized by damage to the mucous membranes, primarily the mouth and eye, in which the patient is bothering the sensation of sand and the foreign body in the eyes, itching the eyelids, the cluster of the white separated in the corners of the eyes. Then the fear of light appears, the defeat of the cornea of \u200b\u200bthe eye. Also, salivary glands are affected, which leads to the development of dryness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, the appearance of teeth and gum diseases.

Treatment: hospitalization. The hospital uses drugs that reduce the immunological responses of the body, anti-inflammatory funds, eye drops, and antibiotics and vitamins are also used.

The bookmark of the nervous system occurs at the 1st week of intrauterine development. The greatest intensity of division of brain nerve cells is among 10 to the 18th week of intrauterine development, which can be considered a critical period of the formation of the CNS. If the number of adult nervous cells to take for 100%, by the time of the birth of a child, only 25% of cells are formed, by 6 months - 66%, and by year - 90-95%.

By the birth of a child of the brain relative to the mass of the body large and amounts to: in a newborn - 1 / 8-1 / 9 per 1 kg of body weight, in a child of 1 year - 1 / 11-1 / 12, a child of 5 years - 1 / 13- 1/14, in adult - 1/40.

The pace of development of the nervous system occur the faster, the smaller the child. Especially vigorously, it proceeds during the first 3 months of life. The differentiation of nerve cells is achieved by 3 years, and by 8 years old cerebral cerebral bark is similar to the bark of the adult brain.

Blood supply of the brain in children is better than adults. This is due to the wealth of the capillary network, which continues to develop and after birth. Abundant brain blood supply ensures the need for fast-growing nervous tissue in oxygen. And its need for oxygen in 20 is too much higher than the muscles.

The outflow of blood from the brain in the children of the first year of life differs from those in adults. This creates conditions that contribute to greater accumulation of toxic substances and metabolites at various diseases than and the more frequent occurrence in children's toxic forms of infectious diseases is explained.

At the same time, the brain substance is very sensitive to an increase in intracranial pressure. The increase in the pressure of the liquor causes the rapid increase in degenerative changes of nerve cells, and the longer existence of hypertension determines their atrophy and death. This is confirmed by children who suffer from intrauterine hydrocephalus.

A solid brain sheath in newborns is relatively thin, fascinated with bones of the base of the skull on a large area. Venous sinuses are thin-wing and relatively than in adults. The soft and web brain shell of newborns is exceptionally thin, subdural and subarachnoid space are reduced. Tanks located on the basis of the brain, on the contrary, relatively large. Brain water pipe (Silviev plumbing) is wider than adults.

As the nervous system develops, the chemical composition of the brain is significantly changed. The amount of water decreases, the content of proteins, nucleic acids, lipoproteins increases.

The spinal cord for birth is more developed than the head. The cervical and lumbar thickening of the spinal cord in newborns are not determined and begin to be contoured after 3 years of life.

The rate of increase in the mass and sizes of the spinal cord is slower than the brain.

Doubling the mass of the spinal cord occurs by 10 months, and tripling - by 3-5 years. The length of the spinal cord is doubled by 7-10 years, and it increases somewhat slower than the length of the spine, so the lower end of the spinal cord moves upwards with age. This should be taken into account when choosing a level of reinforcing puncture, in which the brain substance is not damaged.

Initially, the child is beginning to function the highest analyzers, and only then develop complex locomotor acts that require complex coordination. This pattern is important and testifies to the need to raise movements in a certain sequence.

The formation of speech is due to the formation of the function of the sensory system and the functional ripening of the brain.

The development of speech is also a product and the result of communicating a child with an adult person, educational activity and adult love for a child.

Speech understanding is of great importance for organizing effective educational work with the child.

Imprinting is the mechanism of instant capture, in which the first impression determines the nature of the response affecting the entire future life and the activity of the body. For a long time, his role in the neuropsychiatric development of children was not enough.

However, observations show that it has an important meaning in the formation of neuropsychic development and even future behavior, predetermining it for many years.

Maternal child care is important in the right social behavior of him in the future. The behavior and character of a child who has achieved school age is largely determined by the attention of those people who care for him in early childhood. Children who were brought up by their parents are usually more adapted to school life. If the child was brought up with her grandpa or grandfather, such children are worse adapting to school, coordinated movements are significantly worse. Children who are brought up in children's institutions (nursery, kindergartens), are characterized by an earlier formation and improvement of motor skills, while they have worse speech skills and figurative thinking.

Depending on the conditions of the environment, upbringing and various diseases, the child can delay the normal development of higher nervous activity, so the pediatrician must give advice to parents for the harmonious education of children.

Changes to the CNS activities may be caused by various reasons.

These are neuroinfection (meningitis, encephalitis, poliomyelitis), and intoxication of various etiologies (viral, bacterial, poisoning, etc.), comatose states in diabetes mellitus (hyperglycemic coma, hypoglycemic coma, hyperosmolar coma), injuries of various etiology, including Conditional, chronic and acute renal, hepatic and adrenal insufficiency. Asphyxia in childbirth can also lead to the damage to the CNS. Finally, the cause of the defeat of the central nervous system in children may have congenital metabolic diseases with the accumulation of substances toxically active on the central nervous system (galactosemia, phenylketonuria, etc.).

With lesions of the central nervous system, the behavior, consciousness violates, the muscle tone, unconditional reflexes, the volume of spontaneous, passive and active movements, as well as tendon, perceivers and surface reflexes.

When examined, it is necessary to focus on a certain sequence of signs of impairment of well-being and consciousness in children.

Excitation with euphoria. Improving motor activity and gaming activities, unusual spelling or poverty. The contact with loved ones deteriorates (the child does not seem to hear appeals, requests and instructions), the appetite worsens, the fallback and awakening time increases.

Excitation with negativism. Against the background of a general excited state, positive emotions disappear, the child becomes a capricious, shouts and crying for any occasion, throws up toys, refuses meals, does not know what he wants. Asks hands, can't fall asleep. Increased skin sensitivity - reacts sharply to touching, resets the blanket. Skin and tendon reflexes are increased.

Excitation in combination with a somance. Excitation periods alternate with temporary calm, the appearance of lethargy, drowsiness. The child begins to apply head. Increased skin sensitivity, reflexes can be elevated or normalized.

Somance. Permanent lethargy and drowsiness, but sleep comes short periods, superficial. Instead of crying and shouting, a quiet post, the reaction to the care of the mother is invisible. Weakly reacts to inspection and swaddling. Reducing the skin sensitivity and tendon reflexes.

Stupor. The state of stupor, from which it comes to difficulty after an energetic braking. Often periods of motor concerns with athetosis movements. Reflexes are reduced.

The reaction to painful irritation is distinct, but short.

Sopor. Deep sleep, stupid. It is impossible to fool the child. Skin sensitivity is not determined, tendon reflexes are caused with difficulty and inconstant. The reaction to the pain (injection) is unlucky. Painty and corneal reflexes are preserved. Consciousness is weak, swallowing is saved.

Coma. Complete absence of reflexes and skin sensitivity, there is no reaction to injections and other manipulations. Pupils are broad, there is no reaction to the light, there is no corneal reflex.

Changes to the CNS activities are always accompanied by vegetative shifts.

The excitation phase is associated with the activation of the sympathetic department, therefore there are tachycardia, tachipne, arterial pressure can be elevated. Subsequent phases detect a parasympathetic prevalence. The damage to the central nervous system in severe diseases is never limited to the sphere of consciousness and reflex activity. In a state of stupuses, the coporn and comes are always detected and progressive disorders of vital regulatory functions, in particular the stem departments of the brain. As a result of these disorders, irregular respiration arise (type of Chein-Stokes or Biota), palsy of respiratory or vascular centers.

Therefore, the progression of consciousness violations is a precursor of possible stem violations and requires emergency intensive therapy.